Zero-quiescent power receiver

ABSTRACT

A microelectromechanical resonant switch (“resoswitch”) converts received radio frequency (RF) energy into an output signal with zero quiescent power usage by using a resonant element with a passband input sensitivity of: &lt;−60 dBm, &lt;−68 dBm, and &lt;−100 dBm. The resoswitch first accepts incoming amplitude- or frequency-shift keyed RF energy at a carrier frequency, filters it, provides power gain via resonant impact switching, and finally envelop detects impact impulses to demodulate and recover the modulating waveform. Mechanical gain may be used to amplify received signals, whose amplitudes may be binned, thereby preserving use of amplitude modulated (AM) signals. A second resoswitch may be used to control additional circuitry, whereby the first resoswitch detects a control signal output to the additional circuitry.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/351,893 filed on Jun. 17, 2016, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This application is also a 35 U.S.C. § 111(a) continuation-in-part of PCT international application number PCT/US2017/029769 filed on Apr. 27, 2017, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, which claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/333,182 filed on May 7, 2016, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and which also claims priority to, and the benefit of, U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/328,114 filed on Apr. 27, 2016, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant Number FA9550-10-1-0293 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR), and under Grant Number NBCH1090001 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention.

INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF COMPUTER PROGRAM APPENDIX

Not Applicable

NOTICE OF MATERIAL SUBJECT TO COPYRIGHT PROTECTION

A portion of the material in this patent document is subject to copyright protection under the copyright laws of the United States and of other countries. The owner of the copyright rights has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the United States Patent and Trademark Office publicly available file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. The copyright owner does not hereby waive any of its rights to have this patent document maintained in secrecy, including without limitation its rights pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.14.

BACKGROUND

1. Technical Field

The technology of this disclosure pertains generally to microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) resonators or “resoswitches”, more particularly to MEMS resoswitches that can be excited by direct radio frequency (RF) inputs, and still more particularly to MEMS resoswitches that can listen for valid input signals without the need for DC power draw.

2. Background Discussion

This disclosure describes a method and an apparatus for realizing a zero quiescent power trigger sensor and transceiver based on a microelectromechanical resonant switch. This receiver is unique in its use of a resonant switch (“resoswitch”) to receive an input, amplify it, demodulate it, and finally deliver power to a load. During this process, power is consumed only when a valid input signal within the passband of the resonant element actuates the structure with sufficient amplitude to cause switch impacting. In other words, when actively receiving data, power is required; when listening in a standby (or quiescent) state, no DC power is needed.

In traditional engineering, many physical terms are neglected and assumed to be zero, when in fact they actually are not. However, to make engineering analysis practical, all of these not-quite-zero terms are neglected. For instance, when two disconnected printed circuit board traces are unconnected in any manner, and supplied with DC voltage, the typical assumption is that there is zero power dissipated. In this technology, electret comb fingers are electrically isolated at different potentials. Much like the previous printed circuit board traces, the assumption is that zero power is dissipated.

In the case of the resoswitch, this means that almost no quiescent power is consumed when switching is not occurring, i.e., essentially no power is consumed while listening in standby.

This technology may reduce power consumption while also raising robustness against interferers, enabling sensor wireless communication performance many times better than presently available. The power reductions are such that there might never be a need to replace a battery over the lifetime of a given sensor. Given the prediction that over a trillion sensors will be needed for the internet of things, this technology will likely play a key role in future sensor implementations.

This technology may also have significant near term impact, since its ability to channel-select should greatly improve short range communication applications. For example, with this technology, interference between Bluetooth devices could become a thing of the past. Miracast would work, despite the presence of interfering Bluetooth signals.

The widespread expectation that autonomous sensor networks will fuel massively accessible information technology, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), comes with the realization that huge numbers of sensor nodes will be required, perhaps approaching one trillion. Needless to say, besides cost, energy will likely pose a major constraint in such a vision.

In particular, for autonomous sensor networks that are remotely controlled, an extremely high percentage of time is spent listening for externally RF transmitted control signals. Power dissipation in such instances may be driven significantly by input receiver quiescent power demands.

BRIEF SUMMARY

This disclosure describes a receiver that can sense and demodulate radio frequency (RF) signals and that requires zero quiescent power when listening in standby, i.e., when a valid RF signal is not present.

In one embodiment, the receiver utilizes a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonator (“resoswitch”) to receive a modulated RF signal and to listen for valid RF signals without the need for quiescent power.

During these various impacts, the moving component of the resoswitch, a shuttle, periodically closes an electrical circuit with an output electrode to change a charge state of a load capacitor. The shuttle acts as a resonant element in the device. The resulting time domain waveform of the load capacitor charge state, with periodic peaks and valleys governed by modulations of the input RF carrier, then provides a demodulated version of the received RF input signal that then serves as a remotely received input signal.

A first-in-kind all-mechanical communication receiver front-end employing resonant microelectromechanical switch (i.e., resoswitch) technology has detected and demodulated frequency shift keyed (FSK) signals as low as −58 dBm, −60 dBm, −68 dBm, or −100 dBm at a VLF frequency of 20 kHz, suitable for extremely long-range communications, all while requiring zero quiescent power when listening in standby. The key to attaining high quality signal reception and demodulation with zero quiescent power consumption derives from the use of heavily nonlinear amplification, which is provided by mechanical impact switching of the resoswitch. This approach would be inconceivable in a conventional electronic receiver due to performance degradation caused by nonlinearity, but becomes plausible here by virtue of the RF channel-selection provided by the resonant behavior of the mechanical resoswitch circuit.

Potential advantages and applications include, but are not limited to:

1. The ability to listen for valid RF inputs without the need for DC power consumption, i.e., the ability to operate with zero quiescent power needs. This basically replaces power hungry RF receivers in any electronic system, which would serve a huge volume of products.

2. RF reception, including an ability to listen without the need for DC power, in harsh environments, e.g., radioactive, extreme heat, where conventional electronic receivers cannot operate, but all-mechanical realizations can.

3. Since this requires only mechanical elements, without a transistor circuit, this receiver would be cheaper and smaller than anything extant, let alone its ability to operate with zero quiescent power needs. Both of these attributes of smaller and cheaper would then allow RF receivers in applications that could not previously have them, e.g., toys, belts, shoes, ingested medical pills, etc.

Further aspects of the technology described herein will be brought out in the following portions of the specification, wherein the detailed description is for the purpose of fully disclosing preferred embodiments of the technology without placing limitations thereon.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

The technology described herein will be more fully understood by reference to the following drawings which are for illustrative purposes only:

FIG. 1 is an Illustration of a wireless clock concept, where electronics and appliances receive radio frequency (RF) signals remotely via ultra-low power mechanical receivers from transmitters sometimes thousands of kilometers away.

FIG. 2A is a block diagram of an RF-powered MEMS receiver.

FIG. 2B is a perspective view of a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resoswitch and ancillary circuits that condition the output signal in the block diagram of FIG. 2A.

FIG. 2C is a detailed top view of the output electrodes and the shuttle of the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B, comparing on resonance impacts with those off resonance non-contacts.

FIG. 2D is a graph of amplitude versus time of a binary frequency shift keyed (BFSK) transmitted signal that follows an input RF signal square wave.

FIG. 2E is a graph of the load capacitor C_(L) charge state V_(out) versus time for the input signal of FIG. 2D for the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 2F is a graph of the output data from the flip-flop of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 2G is a graph of a nonlinear amplifier feeding load versus time, showing input frequencies f₁ and f₂, and resonances near f₁.

FIG. 2H is a graph of a high gain transistor voltage transfer characteristics.

FIG. 2I is a graph of a resoswitch voltage transfer characteristics.

FIG. 3A is a graph of displacement versus time of the shuttle of the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 3B is a graph of displacement versus time of the shuttle of FIG. 2B with a higher input signal amplitude than that of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4 is a graph of displacement versus time of the shuttle of FIG. 2B with a marginal input signal amplitude compared to that of FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B and plotted over a longer time span.

FIG. 5A is a schematic view of two resoswitches used together to provide reception of two distinct frequencies f₁ and f₂.

FIG. 5B is a set of compound graphs of binary frequency shift keyed (BFSK) input signal V_(FSK) versus time, correlated with the V_(o) output signal of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5C is a table of other combinations of voltage, frequency, and capacitance, and their resultant continuous, steady state, non-quiescent power consumptions for the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 6A is a cross section of a resoswitch under construction.

FIG. 6B is a cross section of the resoswitch under construction of FIG. 6A, where a seed layer has been deposited, after which a one mask mold has been deposited, with the unneeded regions removed.

FIG. 6C is a cross section of the resoswitch under construction of FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B, where gold has been plated onto the seed layer

FIG. 6D is a cross section of the resoswitch under construction of FIG. 6A through FIG. 6C, where the one mask mold and seed layer not beneath the gold plate have both been removed.

FIG. 7A is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) of a 20-kHz version of the MEMS resoswitch produced via the steps of FIG. 6A through FIG. 6D, in combination with miscellaneous circuit components.

FIG. 7B is a graph of signal transmission versus frequency for a typical gold resoswitch measured by using a mixing method to eliminate interference from unwanted parasitics.

FIG. 8A is a graph of input signal versus time of measured waveforms at various points labeled in the circuit of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 8B is a graph of the measured output voltage V_(out) versus time.

FIG. 8C is a graph of the measured local output signal V_(CLK) versus time.

FIG. 9 is a graph of the Allan deviation of the MEMS resoswitch local clock signal V_(CLK) of FIG. 2B versus the input clock originally used to generate the transmitted RF BFSK voltage source.

FIG. 10 is a graph of voltage versus time of the output voltage V_(out) of FIG. 2B measured on the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 11A is a graph of the Allan deviation for varying values of input drive power P_(in) with a constant DC-bias V_(P) at 9V for the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 11B is a graph of Allan deviation dependence on DC-bias with bias points taken at 7, 8, and 9V.

FIG. 12A is a perspective view of an alternative MEMS-based resoswitch with soft impact electrodes and ancillary circuits that function as a microelectromechanical clock generator designed as an mechanical receiver to detect and demodulate RF input energy.

FIG. 12B is a top view of an MEMS-based resoswitch with hard impact electrodes.

FIG. 12C is a top view of an MEMS-based resoswitch with soft impact electrodes.

FIG. 13A is a graph of a frequency shift keyed (FSK) input voltage versus time supplied to the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 12A.

FIG. 13B is a graph of the shuttle displacement x versus time of FIG. 12A where the MEMS resoswitch shuttle makes a series of continuous impacts.

FIG. 13C is a graph of the output voltage V_(out) due to the shuttle impacts of FIG. 13B, clearly showing that there are missed impacts where the shuttle has not impacted an output electrode.

FIG. 13D is a graph of the local clock output V_(out) generated from the buffered output of the C_(L) voltage.

FIG. 14A is a graph of a continuous wave (CW) input voltage versus time supplied to the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 12A.

FIG. 14B is a graph of the shuttle displacement x versus time of FIG. 12 where the shuttle makes a series of discontinuous impacts due to squegging.

FIG. 14C is a graph of the output voltage V_(out) due to the discontinuous shuttle impacts of FIG. 14B.

FIG. 14D is a graph of the local clock output V_(clk) generated from the buffered output voltage V_(out) of load capacitor C_(L).

FIG. 15A is a simulated resoswitch with an input transient waveform showing zero phase shift Δφ due to a complete lack of shuttle-electrode impact.

FIG. 15B is the same simulated resoswitch of FIG. 15A, where small phase shifts Δφ are observed for soft shuttle-electrode impacts.

FIG. 15C is the same simulated resoswitch of FIG. 15A, where large phase shifts Δφ are observed for hard impacts.

FIG. 16 is a graph of frequency versus restitution factor “r” for Q values of 50, 500, and 5000 that shows how electrode hardness and system Q influence squegging frequency.

FIG. 17A is a cross sectional view of a substrate upon which 4 μm low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) of sacrificial oxide has been deposited followed by lithographic patterning.

FIG. 17B is a cross sectional view of the section of FIG. 17A, where chemical mechanical planarization (CMP) has planarized the surface leaving the polysilicon flush with the oxide mold.

FIG. 17C is a cross sectional view of the section of FIG. 17B, where formation of metal impact contacts is shown sputtered and etched to the contact protrusion geometries.

FIG. 17D is a cross sectional view of the section of FIG. 17C, where a timed wet etch of 49% HF has released the structure while leaving the anchor areas attached to the substrate.

FIG. 18A is a scanning-electron micrograph (SEM) of the released MEMS resoswitch structure produced by using the process steps of FIG. 17A through FIG. 17D, with a few ancillary electrical connections displayed.

FIG. 18B is a graph of the transmission versus frequency of a non-impacting fabricated MEMS resoswitch, showing a vacuum tested Q of 32,625, which is 23 times higher than a previous resoswitch.

FIG. 19A is an amplitude versus time graph of a −50 dBm continuous wave (CW) input signal that is used to drive the MEMS resoswitch to impacting, but with squegged behavior, where impacts do not occur on all cycles.

FIG. 19B is a graph of V_(out) versus time for the resoswitch of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 19C is a graph of the V_(out) local output signal.

FIG. 20 is the measured Allan deviation versus period for the triangle waveform of FIG. 19B that reaches 10⁻³.

FIG. 21A is a simulation of transient dynamics of a MEMS resoswitch with hard-contacts and a small input force.

FIG. 21B is a simulation of transient dynamics of a MEMS resoswitch with hard-contacts and a large input force.

FIG. 21C is a simulation of transient dynamics of a MEMS resoswitch with soft contacts.

FIG. 22 is a graph of gain characteristics for hard and soft contacts in a MEMS resoswitch, illustrating a linear switching region for the soft contacts.

FIG. 23 is a collection of graphs that illustrate the generation and control of interferers through a nonlinear amplifier.

FIG. 24 is a measured time domain plot of the resoswitch output in response to a 20-kHz on-resonance input that induces impact switch, connecting V_(DD) to the output and allowing it to deliver power.

FIG. 25A is a time domain graph of the resoswitch of FIG. 2B with an input signal V_(FSK) that contains an aperiodic control signal.

FIG. 25B is a time domain graph of V_(out) from the resoswitch of FIG. 2A that has received and demodulated the input signal at V_(out).

FIG. 25C is a time domain graph of the resoswitch of FIG. 2B that has recovered the V_(FSK) input signal as V_(control) at the output of the flip-flop.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

1. Overview

This disclosure describes a method and an apparatus for realizing a trigger sensor and transceiver based on a microelectromechanical resonant switch that can listen for valid inputs while in standby without the need for DC power consumption. This sensor/transceiver is unique in its use of a resonant switch (“resoswitch”) to receive an input, amplify it, demodulate it, and finally deliver power to a load. During this process, power is consumed only when a valid input signal within the passband of the resonant element actuates the structure with sufficient amplitude to cause switch impacting. This means zero quiescent power is needed, i.e., no power needed while listening in standby.

This device differs from conventional RFID tags in its much smaller power threshold needed to detect and receive a signal. In particular, a typical RFID tag requires enough power input to not only deliver the desired information, but also to power up its active circuits. This is normally done via diode-based charge pumps, voltage doublers and rectifiers that generate a DC power supply based on the incoming RF energy. The power input required is thus quite large. The present resoswitch-based receiver invention does not require power to receive, so does not require the described converter circuit. It does require a DC power source, however, if power is to be delivered to a load, but this can be easily supplied as an on-chip battery, or even more inexpensively, as a charged capacitor on-chip. Which power source is used depends upon the application. Most sensor network application will likely permit the on-chip charged capacitor.

Important innovations that distinguish this zero quiescent power design from any other receiver are:

(1) Use of a resonant input structure that enhances input sensitivity by amplifying the force-to-displacement response by a factor equal to the Q of the resonance.

(2) Use of displacement amplifying mechanisms, such as slots in disks, or quarter-wavelength-coupled arrays, to match the structure's input to the source, i.e., an antenna, while still generating a large displacement that impacts the output electrode when a sufficient resonant frequency input is received.

(3) The technology does not require a large amount of power in to turn on; i.e., it does not need to convert input ac power into a dc supply, as needed by conventional RFID tags. This allows it to receive much smaller inputs, which in turn, allows it to support interrogation via a centralized and distant base station, rather than a mobile, hand carried one, as often used in conventional RFID tag systems.

(4) The technology uses a compliant switch impact electrode to reduce impacting energy loss, which increases sensitivity and eliminates squegging.

(5) The technology uses electret technology on the input device(s) capable of generating effective voltage differences higher than 400V to enhance input sensitivity.

(6) The technology uses displacement input parametric amplification to generate impacting oscillation at the output of the displacement amplifier.

(7) Channel-select filtering at the input allows the very nonlinear gain that makes possible nearly zero quiescent power consumption, i.e., it provides the ability to operate so nonlinearly.

(8) The technology uses mechanical-to-electrical power amplification via resonant mechanical impact switching.

The ability to sense incoming RF or sensor signals without the need for supplied power gives this invention a unique ability to listen continuously without consuming power. Again, conventional RFID tags are not capable of continuous reception, as they require RF power delivery via the input signal. With a smaller required input signal, the present invention allows interrogation of a large group of sensors by a centralized base station that need not be geographically close to the transceivers.

Although the described demonstrations were done at VLF, LF, HF, and VHF frequencies, higher frequencies stretching past GHz are certainly achievable, as MEMS resonators in this range have already been demonstrated

2. Introduction

The widespread expectation that autonomous sensor networks will fuel massively accessible information technology, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), comes with the realization that huge numbers of sensor nodes will be required, perhaps approaching one trillion. Needless to say, besides cost, energy will likely pose a major constraint in such a vision. If sleep/wake strategies can adequately limit a given node's sensor and wireless power consumption, the power bottleneck then concentrates on the real-time clock (RTC) that synchronizes sleep/wake cycles. On the other hand, an ability to listen in standby without power consumption obviates the need for sleep/wake strategies, which in turn obviates the need for a clock, and allows for a network where sensors are always receptive to valid signal inputs. This ability of the sensor network to listen continuously without sleeping obviously provides enormous advantages.

The resoswitch receiver described herein does not require DC (or quiescent) power when standing by and listening. Another way of saying this is that it can operate with zero quiescent power consumption.

Refer now to FIG. 1, which is an Illustration 100 of a wireless Internet of Things vision, where instead of carrying power hungry local clocks based on positive feedback circuits, electronics 102 and clocks 104 would receive control signals 106 remotely via ultra-low power mechanical receivers from transmitters 108 located sometimes thousands of kilometers away. As long as the control signal 106 frequencies are low enough, transmitted RF signals can penetrate obstacles and travel over large distances, even cross-country. Additional appliances, such as washing machines 110, and microwaves 112 could also use the same wireless technology.

In this illustration, applications that generally employ RF receivers (which include many electronic devices, from phones, to televisions, to appliances) would now no longer require electronic receivers. Rather, electronic radio frequency (RF) receiver circuits would be replaced by resonant switches (“resoswitches”), while base stations would supply the control waveform remotely. If the carrier frequency used were sufficiently low, transmitted RF control signals could penetrate buildings and other structures, even into some tunnels.

Additionally, existing infrastructure, such as AM or FM radio towers, could broadcast control signals in addition to their usual content. If frequencies are low enough, e.g., WWVB signals already transmitted by NIST in Colorado, then cross-country transmission is even possible. For instance, WWVB broadcasts National Institute of Science and Technology timing signals on a 60 kHz carrier wave based on atomic clock standards, with a frequency uncertainty of less than 1 part in 10¹². WWVB covers almost all of the continental United States with its broadcasts.

Of course, electronic receivers for WWVB signals already exist. However, unfortunately, they consume 300 μW of power when on and listening. This is much more than the 1 μW of the typical RTC and is obviously why the described FIG. 1 clock and/or control distribution scheme for everyday electronics would not be presently desirable.

To address this problem, this technology explores the use of a MEMS-based RF receiver to eliminate the need for quiescent power consumption and thereby greatly reduce the power needed to recover a clock waveform and/or control signal from a suitable RF input. Final devices would require zero quiescent power while passively listening to broadcast RF control signals.

Refer now to FIG. 2A through FIG. 2F. FIG. 2A is a block diagram 200 of an RF receiver. Here, an antenna 202 receives radiated RF-power 204, which is then fed into a filter-amplifier-demodulator block 206 that contains at least a channel selection function 208, an amplifier 210, and a demodulator 212. Output from the filter-amplifier-demodulator block 206 may be further processed by additional circuitry 214 to then provide a clock output signal 216. Still further discrimination circuit may be mechanically implemented for zero quiescent power consumption for some applications, thereby creating a transistorless implementation.

The receiver of FIG. 2A would use a MEMS resoswitch to realize the filter-amplifier-demodulator block 206 functionality required.

Refer now to FIG. 2B, which is a perspective view 218 of a MEMS resoswitch 220 and ancillary circuits that function as a filter-amplifier-demodulator block 206 in FIG. 2A. The antenna here is shown as a voltage source 222, with a frequency shift keyed (FSK) input of V_(FSK). This source 222 is coupled 224 to the resoswitch 220. The resoswitch 220 is characterized by output electrodes 226, an anchor 228, that is connected via a folded spring 230 to a moving shuttle 232. The moving shuttle 232 in turn has contact points 234 that impact with the output electrodes 226. The anchor 228 is biased at V_(DD). The moving shuttle 232 is driven by comb transducers 236 that are biased at V_(P) and driven by the source 222. A further implementation of the MEMS resoswitch 220 would likely be around 180 microns by 220 microns.

The receiver specifically employs a MEMS resoswitch 220 as a filter and low noise amplifier (LNA) combination to first absorb an incoming frequency shift keyed (FSK) signal energy at its resonance frequency, block other radio frequency (RF) components not at resonance (known as “interferers”), and then convert the FSK waveform to a lower frequency control waveform.

Additional information regarding the details of MEMS resoswitch design may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 9,431,201, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

The source 222 receives the clock-modulated RF binary frequency shift keyed (BFSK) signal, which the MEMS resoswitch 220 then mechanically filters, amplifies, and demodulates to produce an output voltage V_(out) 238. A final optional QD flip-flop 240 removes unwanted amplitude noise components to produce a final output square wave local control signal V_(control) 242.

It should be noted that the clock signal input to the QD flip-flop 240 may be supplied by a second MEMS resoswitch 220 (not shown here) that is designed to have a bandpass at the clock RF frequency. It should also be noted that the flip-flop can be replaced by a simple inverter to achieve the same amplitude noise reduction in an asynchronous implementation. Finally, neither the flip-flop nor the inverter is needed for cases where the amplitude fluctuation across the capacitor C_(L) is acceptable.

Unlike a conventional transistor receiver, this MEMS resoswitch 220 version requires no direct current power while “listening” for a valid RF signal. A practical system might have a miniscule leakage current of <1 nA, e.g., due to leakage across surface contamination, if present, but note that this leakage current is not required for the device to operate. When it receives the RF signal, it then generates the needed output waveform with considerably less power than otherwise consumed by a conventional electronic receiver or a positive-feedback real time clock (RTC) sustaining amplifier.

When the presently described device is implemented using an off-chip flip-flop 240 with 10 pF gate capacitance and 7.5 pF internal chip capacitance, zero power (only inverter leakage current) is consumed at rest; and only 34.2 nW when dynamically switching, which is 28 times lower than a typical RTC. Here, in order to function as an RTC substitute, the input signal source 222 would need to be an FSK clock signal.

2. Design and Operation

Referring again to FIG. 2B, the RF-powered clock generator uses an all-mechanical receiver front-end that detects, amplifies, and demodulates a source 222 V_(FSK) modulated RF input power; followed by an optional flip-flop 240 that converts an otherwise triangle-wave output of V_(out) 238 to a more perfect square wave output V_(control) 242.

An important aspect to low power consumption lies in the use of a MEMS resoswitch 220 that demodulates and amplifies incoming RF energy via nonlinear mechanical impact switching while avoiding the deleterious effects commonly associated with nonlinear operation via high Q channel-selection. Specifically, front-end channel-selection removes unwanted interferers before they can generate spurious signals via interaction with system nonlinearities.

A. MEMS Resoswitch Receiver Front-End

The MEMS resoswitch 220 comprises a shuttle 232 suspended by four 60 μm folded-beam springs 230 that ultimately anchor 228 to the substrate at the central locations shown. The shuttle 232 holds two capacitive-comb transducers 236 on each side capable of differentially driving the shuttle 232 structure into motion; and two contact points 234 that are protrusions with pointed tips, also one on each side, capable of impacting with output electrodes 226 when the shuttle 232 displacement exceeds the tip-to-electrode gap spacing.

Refer now to FIG. 2C, which is a detailed top view of the output electrodes 226 and the shuttle 232 as they approach and make contact. In the top half of FIG. 2C, impact has occurred because the shuttle 232 has made electrical contact with the output electrode 226, indicative of the shuttle being driven on-resonance by the input signal source 222. For reference, the dashed line view of the shuttle 232 is in the undriven rest position 244, indicative of the shuttle being driven off-resonance by the input signal source 222.

To suppress squegging, this resoswitch differs from previous designs in its use of fully differential input comb electrodes and impact points, both of which help to overcome impact-induced energy loss. If the differential AC input signal shown is off-resonance, the resoswitch does not move sufficiently to overcome the contact gap of d₀ separating the shuttle impact points from the output electrodes, so it is electrically open. When the input signal is on or near resonance and has sufficient amplitude, the shuttle vibrates with sufficiently large amplitude so as to periodically impact the output electrodes, effectively closing the shuttle-to-output switch at the in-channel signal frequency.

Refer now to FIG. 2B and FIG. 2C. When shuttle 232 impact occurs with the output electrode 226, the conductive shuttle 232 closes a switch between the power supply V_(DD) and the output load capacitor C_(L) node V_(out) 238, delivering power from V_(DD) to C_(L) and charging C_(L) in the process. When impacting stops, the bleed resistor R_(bleed) discharges C_(L) to 0V. Both the charging and discharging process work to alter the charge state of the output load capacitor C_(L).

In the lower half of FIG. 2C, the voltage source 222 is seen to be off of the resonance frequency of the MEMS resoswitch 220, thereby limiting the maximum excursion of the shuttle 232 such that contact with the output electrode 226 is not made.

Refer now back to FIG. 2B. In the actual envisioned circuit, an antenna picks up the input signal as a voltage source 222 and feeds it to a balun 224 that then generates differential voltages on the driving capacitive-comb transducers 236, which are also biased at a DC voltage V_(P) to generate voltage drops of (V_(P)-V_(DD)) from comb-electrode to shuttle comb finger that amplify the force of any applied AC signal. Note that since no DC current flows between the electrodes and shuttle, there is no DC power consumption.

If the voltage source 222 input signal is off of the MEMS resoswitch 220 resonance frequency f₂, the shuttle 232 barely moves. If, on the other hand, the voltage source 222 is at resonance f₁, the ensuing shuttle 232 oscillation amplitude rises by Q times, yielding for the displacement amplitude

$\begin{matrix} {\chi_{m} = {Q\frac{F_{drive}}{k_{m}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$ where Q is the quality factor of the resonator; k_(m) is the total stiffness of its suspending folded spring 230 beams; and F_(drive) is the drive force exerted on the shuttle generated by the input signal applied to the comb finger transducers. This force takes the form

$\begin{matrix} {F_{drive} = {{V_{p}\left( {2\frac{\partial c}{\partial x}} \right)}v_{i\; n}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$ where V_(in) is the magnitude of the differential input signal voltages at the drive electrodes; and

$\frac{\partial c}{\partial x}$ is the change in comb-finger overlap capacitance per displacement for each (identical) capacitive-comb transducer. Once the displacement x_(m) exceeds the gap d_(o) between the shuttle and the output impact electrodes, the shuttle collides with these electrodes in a periodic fashion and connects one output electrode to V_(DD). Equating x_(m) with d_(o) yields the minimum resonance voltage amplitude needed to effect impact, which takes the form

$\begin{matrix} {v_{m\; i\; n} = \frac{d_{0}k_{m}}{{QV}_{P}\left( {2\frac{\partial c}{\partial x}} \right)}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

The input voltage is converted to average input power using

$\begin{matrix} {P_{i\; n} = \frac{v_{i\; n}^{2}}{2R_{x}}} & (4) \end{matrix}$ where R_(x) is the motional resistance of the resonator, given by

$\begin{matrix} {R_{x} = \frac{k_{m}}{2\pi\; f_{0}{{QV}_{P}^{2}\left( {2\frac{\partial c}{\partial x}} \right)}^{2}}} & (5) \end{matrix}$ yields for (power) sensitivity S

$\begin{matrix} {S = \frac{2\pi\; f_{0}k_{m}d_{0}^{2}}{Q}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

Note that since the displacement x_(m) for an on-resonance input force is Q times larger than for an off-resonance one, the shuttle only makes contact when detecting small RF signals within the resoswitch passband, i.e., at its resonance frequency. Hence, C_(L) charges only upon reception of an on-resonance RF input, but otherwise discharges to 0V through bleed resistor R_(bleed). So effectively, the resoswitch first channel-select filters the input signal, rejecting practically all out-of-channel power; amplifies any in-channel signal via impact switching to V_(DD), sending power from V_(DD) to the output electrode; and charges/discharges capacitor according to RF input temporal frequency changes and the bleed rate of R_(bleed), all of which amounts to FM demodulation. In effect, the MEMS resoswitch 220 functions as a filter-LNA-demodulator function in one device.

B. Clock Generator

Refer now to FIG. 2D, which is a graph 246 of amplitude versus time of a binary frequency shift keyed (BFSK) transmitted signal 246 that follows a clock signal 248 square wave. Here, the clock signal 248 square wave would correspond to a voltage source that was an amplitude modulated square wave, where instead of providing a control signal, a timing signal was instead transmitted.

Given the above description of MEMS resoswitch 220 operation described above in FIG. 2B, one input scheme (perhaps transmitted by a base station) that generates the desired square-wave clock output is the simple BFSK signal 246 that simply hops back-and-forth between an on-resonance mark frequency f_(mark) (representing a ‘1’) and an off-resonance space frequency f_(space) (representing a ‘0’) with a period corresponding to a desired clock rate f_(CLK). Here, each time span at f_(mark) induces impacts and charges C_(L) to V_(DD); while each time span at f_(space) stops impacts, allowing C_(L) to discharge to 0V via bleed resistor R_(bleed); all resulting in a square wave with amplitude V_(DD) and period governed by the originally modulating source clock. This means the accuracy of the demodulated (local) clock should be practically the same as that of the source clock, which could be extremely good.

C. Clock Stability

Refer now to FIG. 2E, which is a graph 252 of V_(out) versus time for the input signal of FIG. 2D for the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B. Although the received clock signal can be quite accurate, its stability is subject to numerous events. In particular, if the output signal is taken at the V_(out) 238 node indicated in FIG. 2B, then for a given value of bleed resistance R_(bleed) the output waveform might resemble the sawtooth 254 waveform shown, with fast rise times 256 and slow fall times 258. Here, consistency of the rising edge of each sawtooth governs to some extent the stability of the local clock.

Refer now to FIG. 2F, which is a graph 260 of the V_(out) 254 waveform of FIG. 2E versus time, after passing through the final inverter 240 of FIG. 2B. This final V_(out) 254 waveform 254 would then represent the output clock signal from the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B. Presumably, the consistency of the rising edge 262 of the clock signal depends heavily on impact and charging dynamics.

Refer now to FIG. 2G, which is a graph 260 of the MEMS resoswitch of FIG. 2B voltage transfer characteristics. Here, it is seen that the response curve 262 peaks at f₁, and the amplitude of response is significantly reduced at f₂.

Refer now to FIG. 2H, which is a circuit 264 of a high gain transistor and graph 266 of its corresponding voltage transfer characteristics.

Refer now to FIG. 2I, which is an electrically attached MEMS resoswitch 268 and graph 270 of its corresponding voltage transfer characteristics.

D. Resoswitch Filter-LNA

The described resonant switching behavior allows the resoswitch to effectively function as a filter-amplifier-demodulator block 206, such as is shown in FIG. 2A. This of course is a series of functions needed in any receiver front-end, but in this case realized via a single device with a heavily nonlinear impact-based amplifier that outright enables zero quiescent power operation.

To see how, consider that the simplest receiver front-end consists of merely an amplifier immediately following the sensor, e.g., an antenna. If the amplifier is a transistor amplifier, then the finite threshold voltage and subthreshold slope of its transistor switching device precludes on/off switched operation, since the microvolt level inputs typically received are not large enough to induce switching over sub-millisecond integration times. Rather, the transistor must be biased at a high gain operating point, where significant DC current flows, hence, significant power consumption ensues, as shown in FIG. 2H.

Refer now to FIG. 3A, which is a graph 300 of displacement versus time of the shuttle 232 of FIG. 2B. Here, for example, three RF input signal 302 cycles 304 are required to achieve first impact 306, then any variance in the drive efficiency that changes the number of cycles required to impact would contribute to rise time changes, and hence instability.

Refer now to FIG. 3B, which is a graph 308 of displacement versus time of the shuttle 232 of FIG. 2B with a higher input signal 310 amplitude than that of FIG. 3A. If the drive force amplitude changes for any reason, the number of oscillations needed to instigate impacting could also change, as shown by comparing FIG. 3A with FIG. 3B. Here, in FIG. 3B, only a single cycle 312 of drive is required to achieve impact 314. In addition, any variance in electrical contact resistance upon impact would change the charging rate of C_(L), hence change the rise time and again generate instability.

Refer now to FIG. 4, which is a graph 400 of displacement versus time of the shuttle 232 of FIG. 2B with a marginal input signal 402 amplitude compared to that of FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B. Here, the shuttle 232 displacement 404 of FIG. 2B is seen to be driven to impact 406 three successive times, only to miss the subsequent four driven cycles 408.

However, perhaps a more important source of instability to be noted would be that of squegging, where dephasing during collisions reduce the efficiency of the input drive force at resonance, resulting in undue energy loss in certain instances that then lead to missed impacts over small periods. The missed impacts of four driven cycles 408 duration is the result of squegging. Here, it C_(L) discharges significantly during the non-impacting periods, and the resulting dip in output voltage (V_(out) 238 of FIG. 2B) could generate an unexpected fall and rise instance, which could be logged as an off-frequency cycle that contributes to frequency instability.

More study into the sources of instability and on methods for controlling them will likely be the subject of ongoing research. Meanwhile, one quick way to improve stability is to speed up the rise time in order to reduce amplitude variation around the zero-crossing point of each cycle. Referring back to FIG. 2B, the amplification provided by the inverter 240 following V_(out) 238 and delivering the output square-wave V_(CLK) 242 improves stability.

E. Power Consumption of Bleed Resistor Version

The clock generator circuit of FIG. 2A through FIG. 2F is the actual circuit demonstrated experimentally and described below. Since it employs a bleed resistor R_(bleed), this circuit consumes (V_(DD))²/R_(bleed) whenever its output is high. It still consumes zero power when it receives a space frequency input. This means that for a clock duty cycle of D, the average power consumption when driven by the described RF BFSK signal is

$\begin{matrix} {P = {{C_{L}V_{DD}^{2}f_{CLK}} + {\frac{V_{DD}^{2}}{R_{bleed}}D}}} & (7) \end{matrix}$ that depends on the size of R_(bleed). As an example, if V_(DD)=1V, R_(bleed)=30MΩ, D=50%, f_(CLK)=1 kHz, and C_(L)=17.5 pF, the power consumption would be 34.2 nW, which is much smaller than the 1 μW of a typical real time clock (RTC). However, 34.2 nW is nowhere near the lowest power consumption achievable via this technology.

F. Lower Power Consumption Push-Pull Version

Refer now to FIG. 5A-FIG. 5C. In FIG. 5A, which is a schematic 500 view of two resoswitches used together to provide an even lower power consumption clock generator by using an upper 502 and lower 504 resoswitches arranged in a push-pull circuit topology.

Here, the upper resoswitch 502 operates with resonance at the mark frequency f₁ and shuttle connected to V_(DD); and the lower 504 resoswitch operates with resonance at the space frequency f₂ and its shuttle connected to ground. Both the upper 502 and lower 504 resoswitches receive the BFSK input signal 506 with both their outputs tied to C_(L) 508 to produce an output clock signal of V_(o) 510.

On the mark cycle, the lower 504 resoswitch is stationary, while the upper 502 resoswitch impacts its output electrode to deliver charge from V_(DD) to C_(L), charging it to V_(DD), i.e., to an output ‘1’.

On a space cycle, the upper 502 resoswitch is stationary, while the lower 504 resoswitch impacts its output electrode, connecting the output terminal to ground, which then discharges C_(L) to ground. As the BFSK input signal 506 alternates between mark and space frequencies, a square wave ensues, as shown.

Refer now to FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B, where FIG. 5B is a set of compound graphs of BFSK input signal 506 V_(FSK) versus time 512, correlated 514 with the V_(o) 510 output clock signal of FIG. 5A.

The power consumption (i.e., V_(DD)) of the FIG. 5A clock generator now no longer contains a constant bleed resistor R_(bleed) term, but rather depends strongly on the load capacitance C_(L) 508 and takes the form P=C_(L)V_(DD) ²f_(CLK)  (8) From Eq. (8), power consumption decreases with reductions in any of C_(L), V_(DD), and/or f_(CLK). Using Eq. (8) while assuming a typical on-chip inverter gate capacitance of 5 fF, the circuit of FIG. 5A with V_(DD)=1V and a clock frequency f_(CLK)=1 kHz consumes only 5 μW. This would last 6,342 years on only 1 J of energy.

If, on the other hand, an off-chip inverter were used with 10 pF of gate capacitance and 7.5 pF internal chip capacitance during dynamic switching, the power consumption at the same V_(DD) and frequency would be 17.5 nW. This would still last a reasonable 1.8 years on 1 J. If the clock frequency were reduced to 1 Hz (for a 1 second period), then only 17.5 pW would be needed, and the clock would again last quite long on 1 J-1,812 years, to be exact.

Refer now to FIG. 5C, which is a table 516 of other combinations of voltage, frequency, and capacitance, and their resultant power consumptions.

G. Coded RF-Powered Clock Demonstration

Refer now to FIG. 6A through FIG. 6D. Resoswitch clock receiver/generators were fabricated via the one-mask electroplated-gold surface micromachining process summarized below.

Refer now to FIG. 6A, which is across section 600 of a soft contact resoswitch under construction. Initially, on a base, which may be a typical silicon wafer substrate 602, a sacrificial layer 604 is deposited. The sacrificial layer 604 may be comprised of a deposition of 2 μm LPCVD oxide on a Si substrate, followed by 2 μm LPCVD polysilicon, which is subsequently patterned to define the resoswitch structure.

Refer now to FIG. 6B, which is a cross section 606 of the resoswitch of FIG. 6A under construction. Here, a seed layer 608 is deposited, after which a one mask mold 610 is deposited, with the unneeded regions 612 removed. The seed layer 608 is typically 150 nm of Ru sputtered and patterned by lift-off to leave metal only over 10 μm by 10 μm areas at the contact points.

The device is slightly tilted at about 15° during Ru sputtering to ensure metal coverage on the sidewalls of the contact areas.

A rapid-thermal-anneal (RTA) at 950° C. for 3 minutes then forms Ru_(x)Si_(y) wherever metal touches silicon, while metal over oxide remains intact.

A wet dip in Ru etchant removes the unsilicided metal. The siliciding step preferentially leaves silicide over the contact surfaces, but not on the rest of the structure, allowing for higher Q than if the entire structure were silicided.

Refer now to FIG. 6C, which is a cross section 614 of the resoswitch of FIG. 6B under construction. Here, gold has been plated 616 onto the seed layer 608.

Refer now to FIG. 6D, which is a cross section 618 of the resoswitch of FIG. 6C under construction. Here, the one mask mold 610 and seed layer 608 not beneath the gold plate 616 have both been removed by a timed etch in 49% HF, which releases the suspended structure while retaining oxide under the anchor areas.

Refer now to FIG. 7A, which is a combination 700 of a SEM of the resoswitch produced via the steps of FIG. 6A through FIG. 6D, in combination with miscellaneous circuit components. Here, the resoswitch imaged is that of a 20 kHz version with silicide contacts.

For testing, a Lakeshore FWPX probe station provided a 1 mTorr vacuum environment under which resoswitches were first characterized and then operated as RF clock receivers.

Refer now to FIG. 7B, which is a graph 702 of signal transmission versus frequency for a typical gold resoswitch measured using a mixing method to eliminate interference from unwanted parasitics. The measured Q of 1,035 is not nearly as high as the 50,000 normally exhibited by similar devices in polysilicon, but is on par with typical numbers posted by resonators constructed of gold as the structural material.

H. RF Clock Receiver Demonstration

To demonstrate RF-powered clock operation, a fabricated resoswitch within the vacuum environment was first hooked into the circuit of FIG. 2B, then excited by an HP 33120A Waveform Generator providing a clock-modulated BFSK signal with appropriate mark and space frequencies.

Refer now to FIG. 2B, as well as FIG. 8A through FIG. 8C. FIG. 8A is a graph 800 of input signal versus time of measured waveforms at various points labeled in the circuit of FIG. 2B when excited by a clock-modulated BFSK RF signal as the voltage source 222. As shown, the −58 dBm BFSK input signal acts as the voltage source 222, with alternating mark 802 and space 804 frequencies (respectively f_(mark) and f_(space)) of 20 kHz and 50 kHz, respectively, that drive the MEMS resoswitch 220 shuttle 232 to impact the output electrodes 226 during the half period when the input is at 20 kHz, under which the output voltage shown in FIG. 8B rises to V_(DD).

For the following input signal half period of 50 kHz, shuttle 232 impacts stop and the output voltage V_(out) 238 discharges to zero. The alternating mark 802 and space 804 frequencies are indicated by the input clock waveform 806 that drives the f_(mark) and f_(space).

FIG. 8B is a graph 808 of the measured 810 output voltage V_(out) 232 for the voltage source 222 versus time. The waveform of output voltage V_(out) 238 in FIG. 8B could already serve as a clock signal, and if acceptable, would allow clock generation without need for an output final inverter 240. For more demanding applications, addition of a single final inverter 240 provides a cleaner square-wave with less amplitude noise.

FIG. 8C is a graph 812 of the measured 814 local output clock signal V_(CLK) 240 versus time. FIG. 8C presents the measured final output clock waveform delivered by a simple off-chip Texas Instruments SN74AHC inverter, which consumes 7.5 nW of battery power, for a total (with C_(L) charging) of 34.2 nW.

Ultimately, the measured 814 local clock output in FIG. 8C mimics the original modulating source clock waveform of FIG. 8A, confirming RF-powered local clock generation exactly as previously described.

I. Allan Deviation Measurements

Refer now to FIG. 2B and FIG. 9. FIG. 9 is a graph 900 of the Allan deviation of the MEMS resoswitch 220 local clock signal V_(CLK) 242 of FIG. 2B 902 versus that of the input clock 904 originally used to generate the BFSK voltage source 222. This measurement allows a gauge of the stability of the received and down-converted local clock.

Here, FIG. 9 presents the preliminary measurements of Allan deviation for the down-converted local clock when excited by an RF BPSK voltage source 222 signal modulated by an HP33120A Waveform Generator against that of the reference clock used to modulate the input RF carrier. Clearly, the stability of the local clock signal is poorer than that of the reference clock. This is not unexpected given the stability discussion above.

FIG. 10 is a graph 1000 of voltage versus time of the output voltage V_(out) 238 of FIG. 2B, and the final output square wave local clock signal V_(CLK) 242 measured on the MEMS resoswitch 220 of FIG. 2B. To explore the hypothesis that squegging can contribute to instability, FIG. 10 presents an oscilloscope snapshot of a few representative clock cycles at the V_(out) 1002 and V_(CLK) 1004 nodes of FIG. 2B. Here, squegging leads to occasional missed impacts, which then inserts unexpected fall and rise transitions 1006, hence alters the frequency over this instance and compromises clock stability. The missed impacts cause the output curve to drop too low, which then trigger the inverter to output a high when it should be outputting a low. This inserts an unexpected clock transition, which destabilizes the frequency.

Refer now to FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B. FIG. 11A is a graph 1100 of the Allan deviation for varying values of input drive power P_(in) with a constant DC-bias V_(P) at 9V for the MEMS resoswitch 220 of FIG. 2B. Here, the Allan deviation response of the local RF-powered clock is graphed at three input power levels: P_(in) at −48 dm 1102, P_(in) at −52 dBm 1104, and P_(in) at −58 dBm 1106. Optimal performance is seen at the highest power P_(in) at −48 dm 1102, with successively worse performance for lower input power levels of P_(in) at −52 dBm 1104, and P_(in) at −58 dBm 1106.

Given that larger drive voltage reduces squegging, the improvement in Allan deviation with increasing drive voltage seen in FIG. 11A does further attest to a squegging-based mechanism for instability.

Refer now to FIG. 11B, which is a graph 1108 of Allan deviation local clock dependence on DC-bias with bias points taken at 8 (1110), 9 (1112), and 7V (1114). In FIG. 11B, it is less conclusive that higher bias increases local clock performance, although there does seem to be a sweet spot at 8V 1110 where Allan deviation is best.

That squegging might be the principal reason for clock instability is actually encouraging, since recent research has identified methods by which squegging can be reduced. These include the use of a symmetric drive (which the FIG. 2B device already uses), reduction of the output impact gap, and the use of soft or compliant impact electrodes. Work to incorporate these fixes into future resoswitch clock designs is underway, which should lead to significant stability improvements.

J. Coded RF-Powered Clock Closing Remarks

The 34.2 nW of battery power used by the demonstrated RF-powered mechanical clock is already 28 times smaller than the typical 1 μW RTC. If an on-chip inverter (with much less capacitance) was available and a push-pull topology used, the total dynamic power consumption could potentially drop to only 5 pW, which is 15,000 times smaller. Since this power value would allow a 1 J printed battery to last more than 6,000 years, battery self-discharge would more likely determine ultimate lifetime.

Although the demonstrated clock shares the accuracy of the modulating source clock, there are sources of instability that compromise the short-term performance of the local generated clock. Among the list of possible destabilizing phenomena, squegging seems to dominate in the demonstrated prototype. That squegging is the main culprit is somewhat encouraging, since it means there is opportunity for improvement, especially given the approaches to reducing resoswitch squegging already in the literature.

K. CW-Powered Squegging Microelectromechanical Clock Generator

The previous sections introduced an RF-powered microelectromechanical clock generator that dispenses with the conventional transistor-based positive feedback oscillator approach to successfully reduce power consumption down to 34 nW.

Refer now to FIG. 12, which is a perspective view 1200 of an alternative MEMS-based resoswitch and ancillary circuits that function as a microelectromechanical clock generator designed as an all-mechanical receiver that detects and demodulates RF input energy.

The resoswitch 1202 comprises a polysilicon movable shuttle 1204 suspended by stress-relieving folded-beams 1206, flanked by capacitive-comb transducers 1208, and employing sharp metal protrusions 1210 to impact the indicated soft-impact output electrodes 1212. Once driven by an input V_(in) 1214 to resonance at a sufficiently large amplitude, the shuttle 1204 protrusions 1210 impacts the output electrodes 1216, thereby closing a switch contact and delivering charge from the supply V_(DD) 1218 to the output load capacitor C_(L) 1220, charging it to V_(DD) 1218. Bleeding down of C_(L) 1220 is accomplished by R_(bleed) 1222. The voltage of C_(L) 1220 may be monitored by buffered 1224 output V_(out) 1226. Additionally, the voltage of C_(L) 1220 may be square-waved by field effect transistor (FET) inverter stack 1228 to produce a local clock output V_(CLK) 1230.

The MEMS resoswitch 220 shown in the previous FSK clock generator of FIG. 2B operates in an on-off keying (OOK) fashion, where a mark input frequency f_(mark) excites resonance impacts to generate voltage spikes at f_(mark) that are rectified by R_(bleed) 1218 and C_(L) 1216 to yield a clock “high”. Meanwhile, an off-resonance space frequency f_(space) induces no motion, consequently no impacts, allowing C_(L) 1216 to discharge via R_(bleed) 1218, generating a clock “low”, all of which are done with extremely low power consumption.

One drawback of the previous clock generator of FIG. 2B is the need for a clock-modulated RF waveform. For example, in a potential application where all RTCs receive clock activation energy wirelessly, it would be more easily implemented if the energy powering the clocks were not modulated, i.e., if it could be delivered as a simple continuous wave (CW) input.

The mechanical clock demonstrated in FIG. 12 uses squegging to convert −50 dBm of input CW energy into a local 1 kHz clock output while consuming only 1.3 nW of battery power when outputting a triangle-wave into 0.8 pF, which is 770 times lower than the 1μW of a typical RTC.

L. CW Clock Generator

Refer again to FIG. 12A. Except for use of a W/TiN contact protrusion metal instead of Au (for reasons to be described), the structure of the CW clock generator mimics that of the previous FSK one. Its operation, on the other hand, is quite different. Instead of functioning as a receiver that faithfully demodulates a received clock signal, the CW clock generator effectively 1) harvests the energy from a remote unmodulated CW input signal; then 2) uses the energy to instigate and facilitate generation of a stable clock signal from a local power source.

Refer now to FIG. 12, as well as FIG. 13A through FIG. 13D, which are waveforms at various locations in the MEMS resoswitch 1202. FIG. 13A is a graph 1300 of an FSK input voltage versus time supplied to the MEMS resoswitch 1202 as V_(in) 1214. The FSK waveform is characterized by high frequency spaced F_(space) 1302 and lower frequency marks F_(mark) 1304. FIG. 13B is a graph 1306 of the shuttle 1204 displacement x versus time making a series of continuous impacts 1308. FIG. 13C is a graph 1310 of the output voltage V_(out) 1226 due to the shuttle 1204 impacts of FIG. 13B, clearly showing that there are missed impacts 1312. Finally, FIG. 13D is a graph 1314 versus time of the local clock output V_(clk) 1230 generated from the buffered output of the C_(L) 1220 voltage.

Refer now to FIG. 12A, as well as FIG. 14A through FIG. 14D, which are waveforms at various locations in the MEMS resoswitch 1202. FIG. 14A is a graph 1400 of a continuous wave (CW) input voltage versus time supplied to the MEMS resoswitch 1202 as V_(in) 1214. FIG. 14B is a graph 1402 of the shuttle 1204 displacement x versus time making a series of discontinuous impacts 1404, 1406 due to squegging. FIG. 14C is a graph 1408 of the output voltage V_(out) 1226 due to the shuttle 1204 impacts 1404, 1406 of FIG. 14B, clearly showing missed CW cycles 1410. Finally, FIG. 14D is a graph 1412 of the local clock output V_(clk) 1230 generated from the buffered output of the C_(L) 1220 voltage of FIG. 14C.

To further expand on FIG. 14A through FIG. 14C, these graphs illustrate the overall operation of the CW clock generator. As with the FSK-input version previously summarized in FIG. 13A through FIG. 13D, the CW-input version receives energy via V_(in), 1214 of FIG. 12, but this time as FIG. 14A an unmodulated continuous waveform (that could be wireless) within the response bandwidth of the shuttle 1204. This input induces a force at resonance, which in turn instigates resonance vibration of the shuttle 1204, ultimately with an amplitude that grows until the shuttle impacts the output electrode(s) 1216. Upon each impact, current flows from the battery supply V_(DD) 1218 to the output load capacitor C_(L), 1220 quickly charging it to V_(DD).

At this point, if the shuttle continues to impact the output electrode 1216, C_(L) 1220 remains charged to V_(DD), which means there is no periodic clock signal. A clock signal, of course, requires that C_(L) 1220 charge and discharge periodically. R_(bleed) 1222 in FIG. 12 is poised to discharge C_(L) 1220 at a designed “bleed” rate, but only if impacting stops. The present clock generator realizes cessation of impacting by designing the resoswitch to squegg at a specific clock frequency.

FIG. 14B illustrates the squegging phenomenon where impact-induced disruption 1404 reduces the device's resonating element (shuttle 1204) to lose oscillation amplitude (hence stop impacting), then recover oscillation amplitude to impact again 1406, only to again lose amplitude, in a periodic and repeatable fashion. The resulting time domain waveform of FIG. 14C, with periodic peaks and valleys, then provides a stable frequency that can then serve as a local on-board clock for low data rate applications.

The ability to generate a stable clock output derives not from reception of a specific modulated signal, but rather from the “squegging” resonance impact dynamics.

Refer now to FIG. 15A through FIG. 15C. Here, FIG. 15A is a graph 1500 simulated resoswitch shuttle 1502 connected to ground 1504 via a spring 1506, and driven with an input waveform forcing function F_(drive) 1508 applied to the shuttle 1502. This system shows a shuttle displacement 1510 with a zero phase shift Δφ from the input F_(drive) 1512 due to a complete lack of shuttle-electrode impact.

FIG. 15B is a graph 1514 of the same simulated resoswitch of FIG. 15A, where small phase shifts Δφ 1516 are observed for soft impacts between the shuttle 1502 and a soft output electrode surface 1518. Here, it is seen that there are occasional missed impacts 1520, 1522, and 1524 due to phase shift variations leading to small amplitude shuttle 1502 displacement 1526.

FIG. 15C is a graph 1528 of the same simulated resoswitch of FIG. 15A, where large phase shifts Δφ 1530 are observed for hard impacts between the shuttle 1502 and a hard output electrode surface 1532. It is seen here that several successive impacts are missed 1534 due to low amplitude shuttle 1502 displacement 1536

Referring to FIG. 15A through FIG. 15C, it may be seen that, in general, phase shifts pull the resoswitch out of synchronization with the drive force F_(drive) 1512, reducing its efficiency and thereby causing squegging where no impacts occur over the next few cycles until the shuttle structure re-synchronizes with the input force and recovers to impact once again. The period of squegging is a function of contact electrode hardness. Thus the resoswitch 1200 in FIG. 12 employs soft-impacting cantilever contact electrodes to better control the amount of squegging, thereby better controlling the squegging frequency.

M. Squegging by Design

The resonance force response simulations in FIG. 15B and FIG. 15C more fully explain the mechanism behind squegging by comparison with the non-impacting (therefore non-squegged) case in FIG. 15A. With no impacts, the amplitude of the resonant structure oscillation of FIG. 15A grows until limited by (gentle) losses, at which point it reaches steady-state vibration, where its displacement phase lags that of the input excitation force by 90°.

The non-squegged operation of FIG. 15A contrasts when a nearby output electrode limits the displacement amplitude of the resonant structure, energy absorption upon contact imposes a phase delay Δφ 1516 on shuttle bounce-back, which then lowers the efficiency of the input drive, resulting in a smaller subsequent amplitude in the next cycle.

The amount of phase shift, 1516 and 1530, and thus number of missed impact cycles (for instance 1520, 1522, and 1524 of FIG. 15B versus 1536 of FIG. 15C), depends strongly on the hardness of the contact: For the case of a soft contact, as in FIG. 15B, Δφ 15165 is small, so very few cycles miss 1520, 1522, 1524, and very little squegging ensues.

A hard contact, on the other hand, is depicted in FIG. 15C. Here the hard contact imposes much larger dephasing Δφ 1530 that results in many missed impact cycles 1534, giving R_(bleed) 1222 enough time to discharge C_(L) 1220.

Again, the resoswitch of the present CW clock generator differs from that of the previous FSK one in its use of a harder W/TiN contact interface, which enhances squegging and a stiffness-controllable cantilever (or other softening) contact electrode that together allow one to tune the impact hardness and thereby control the frequency and quality (i.e., stability) of squegging. Ultimately, the system recovers to a state where the displacement is again 90° phase-shifted from the input force, raising the drive force efficiency to grow the displacement amplitude to again impact, after which the cycle repeats. The stability of the cycle determines the ultimate stability of the clock.

As described elsewhere, there are numerous variables by which squegging and its periodicity can be controlled, including, but not limited to: gap distance, drive symmetry, Q, contact hardness (as governed by contact interface materials), and drive strength. Inevitably, each of these variables governs the squegging period by influencing contact dynamics.

To address contact dynamics, consider that before making contact with the electrode, the resonator experiences only the drive force F_(drive). Upon impact, the impacting electrode applies a counteracting contact force F_(c) on the resonator to prevent it from penetrating into the electrode. The relevant equations are: F _(c) =k _(x)(x ₁ −x ₀)  (9) m ₁ {umlaut over (x)} ₁ +b{dot over (x)} ₁ +kx ₁ =F _(drive)(x ₁ <x ₀)  (10) m ₁ {umlaut over (x)} ₁ +b{dot over (x)} ₁ +kx ₁ =F _(drive) −F _(c)(x ₁ ≤x ₀)  (11) where x₁, m₁, k and b are the displacement, equivalent mass, stiffness, and damping factor of the resonator, respectively. x₀ is the initial spacing between the resonator and the output electrode, i.e., the displacement threshold to be overcome before the resonator shuttle makes initial contact.

The contact force is a product of the penetration depth and the contact stiffness k_(c), the latter of which increases with penetration depth. For the specific design here, the hard surface of the W/TiN contact material dictates very shallow penetration, which means k_(c) is approximately constant over the period of contact. However, since the value of k_(c) depends on many other factors, such as the contact velocity v₁, the surface roughness, and the mechanical stiffness of the electrode, it often takes the form of a fitting factor to satisfy the penetration tolerance.

To study how impacts influence the squegging frequency, one can introduce a post impact shuttle velocity v₁′, defined as v₁′=rv₁ where r is a coefficient of restitution that captures impact conditions and that increases with increasing hardness. A positive r means the impact does not invert the direction of the resonator's velocity, which means the resonator suffers a smaller phase setback Δφ than impacting with a negative r factor. After each impact at time t_(n), the initial conditions of differential Eq. (10) and Eq. (11) change to: x ₁(t _(n))=x ₀  (12) V ₁ t _(n) ⁻ =rv ₁(t _(n) ⁺)  (13) where t_(n) ⁻ and t_(n) ⁺ are the times before and after the n^(th) impact at t_(n), respectively. The effect of these initial conditions fade out as

$e^{- {({\frac{\omega}{2Q}t})}},$ which means the displacement phase lag recovers with a time constant τ˜2Q/ω Thus, the higher the Q, the longer it takes to recover, the more missed impacts, the longer the discharging period, and the lower the output squegging frequency. Some of these relationships are demonstrated below.

Refer now to FIG. 16, which is a graph 1600 of frequency versus restitution factor “r” for Q values of 50, 500, and 5000 (respectively 1602, 1604, and 1606 on the graph) that shows how electrode hardness and system Q influence squegging frequency.

8. Material Design and Fabrication

Given its time-keeping function, the frequency of the CW clock generator should be low, which suggests its resonator element have high Q and its contact interface be hard. To insure high resonant Q, the resoswitch for CW clock generation uses polysilicon structural material to set elastic properties, while employing hard W/TiN metal (for long missed impact periods) only in areas where impacting contacts occur.

Refer now to FIG. 17A through FIG. 17D, which represent cross sections of the process flow of a two-mask fabrication process for manufacturing a soft contact resoswitch. The process starts 1700 in FIG. 17A with a substrate 1702 (typically silicon) upon which 2 μm LPCVD of oxide 1704 has been deposited followed by 2 μm LPVD polysilicon, which is subsequently lithographically patterned to define the resoswitch structure shown in FIG. 17B.

In FIG. 17C, 150 nm of Ru is then sputtered and patterned by lift-off to leave metal only over 10 μm×10 μm areas at the contact points 1708. The sample is tilted slightly at about 15° during sputtering to ensure metal coverage on the sidewalls (and incidentally the bottom 1710) of the contact areas.

A rapid thermal anneal (RTA) at 950° for 3 minutes then forms Ru_(x)Si_(y) wherever metal touches silicon, while metal over oxide remains intact. A wet dip in Ru etchant removes the unsilicided metal.

The silicidation step preferentially leaves silicide over the contact surfaces, but not on the rest of the structure, allowing for higher Q than if the entire structure were silicided.

Finally, a timed etch in 49% HF releases the suspended structure while retaining oxide under the anchor areas resulting in completely fabricated contacts 1712.

FIG. 18A is a scanning-electron micrograph (SEM) of the released resoswitch structure 1800 produced using the process steps of FIG. 17A through FIG. 17D, with ancillary electrical connections displayed. This fabricated resoswitch 1802 has on it anchor regions 1804 and W/TiN contact regions 1806.

N. Experimental Results

The fabricated resoswitch 1802 was wirebonded onto a printed circuit board (PCB) and emplaced into a custom-built bell jar to provide a 100 μTorr vacuum test environment and allow SubMiniature Version A (SMA) connections to external test instrumentation that include voltage sources and an oscilloscope.

Refer now to FIG. 18B, which is a graph of the transmission versus frequency of a non-impacting fabricated resoswitch 1802, showing a vacuum Q of 32,625, which is 23 time higher than a previous resoswitch, enabled largely by the use of an anti-oxidant during HF release. In this test, R_(f)=100 kΩ and V_(p)=6V.

Refer now to FIG. 2B, along with FIG. 19A through FIG. 19C. FIG. 19A through FIG. 19C are all plots of measured waveforms at various points labeled in the FIG. 2B circuit. FIG. 19A is an amplitude versus time graph of a −50 dBm CW input signal that is used to drive the resoswitch 220 to impacting, but with squegged behavior, where impacts do not occur on all cycles, as indicated by the varying amplitudes in FIG. 19B and FIG. 19C.

FIG. 19B is a graph of V_(out) 238 versus time. Following the same time scale, FIG. 19C is a graph of the V_(clk) 242 local clock output.

Thus, impact-based charging of the output capacitor C_(L) occurs only at the beginning of a squegging cycle, after which C_(L) discharges through bleed resistor R_(bleed), inevitably generating the triangle waveform of FIG. 19B shown with a frequency of 1 kHz determined by resoswitch design.

Refer now to FIG. 20, which is the measured Allan deviation for the triangle waveform of FIG. 19B that reaches 10⁻³. This is sufficiently stable for low-end commercial applications, such as timers for washing machines and low data rate wireless sensors. Addition of a single inverter provides a cleaner square-wave signal of FIG. 19C, but is actually not needed for rising edge-triggered systems.

Refer back to FIG. 12. Here, the output node 1232 of the resoswitch connects via wirebond to two separate following stages: 1) a buffer 1224 (Texas Instruments THS4271) that feeds the oscilloscope; and 2) an inverter 1228 that produces the square wave clock output. The total capacitive load presented to the resoswitch output node 1232 thus combines 0.8 pF of buffer 1224 input capacitance, 10 pF of inverter 1228 input capacitance, and 7.5 pF of internal chip capacitance, for a total of 18.3 pF. With V_(DD) 1218 of 1V, clock frequency f_(CLK) of 1 kHz, and a duty cycle D of 1/60 (which allows one to neglect current through a 30MΩ R_(bleed) 1222), the total power consumption is 18.3 nW. Without the inverter 1228, when outputting a triangle wave into only the 0.8 pF input capacitance of the buffer, the clock only consumes 1.3 nW, which is 770 times lower than the 1 μW of a typical RTC.

O. CW-Powered Clock Generator Closing Remarks

With its ability to use energy from a simple CW wave and with no modulation required, the demonstrated mechanical CW clock generator potentially enables scenarios where even the simplest inexpensive products, e.g., toys, paper, can benefit from an embedded clock that might be key to smart operation as long as CW energy is available. Considering that radio signals are everywhere, even in remote areas (e.g., WWVB, AM), the prospects of this technology making available clocks that can permeate simple products is promising. Improved modeling and understanding of squegging has already uncovered promising solutions to stability and accuracy problems that make for interesting research ahead.

It will be appreciated that this disclosure has described, in one exemplary embodiment, a microelectromechanical resonant switch (“resoswitch”) that converts received radio frequency (RF) energy (at −58 dBm) into a 1-kHz clock output with less than 34.2 nW of local battery power, which is 28 times less than the 1 μW typical real-time clock (RTC). The resoswitch accepts incoming amplitude- or frequency-shift keyed clock-modulated RF energy at a carrier frequency, filters it, provides power gain via resonant impact switching, and finally envelop detects impact impulses to demodulate and recover the carrier clock waveform. The resulting output derives from the clock signal that originally modulated the RF carrier, resulting in a local clock that shares its originator's accuracy. A bare push-pull 1-kHz RF-powered mechanical clock generator driving an on-chip inverter gate capacitance of 5 fF can potentially operate with only 5 pW of battery power, 200,000 times lower than the typical RTC. Using an off-chip inverter with 17.5 pF of effective capacitance, a 1-kHz push-pull resonator would consume 17.5 nW.

P. Amplitude Modulation (AM) Receiver Structure and Operation

Refer now back to FIG. 12A through FIG. 12C, which summarize the structure and operation of the mechanical AM receiver with hard and soft contact implementations. Here, an antenna (here simulated by input V_(in) 1214 in FIG. 12A) receives an information-rich AM signal in the desired channel alongside unwanted interferers in adjacent channels and directs the combined signal to the resoswitch input. As shown, the resoswitch 1202 comprises stress-relieving folded-beams 1206, flanked by capacitive-comb transducers 1208, much like conventional renditions, except this one can impact the identified switch contact points when its resonance vibration amplitude exceeds a certain threshold. Each impact connects the switch terminals to the supply voltage V_(DD) 1218, allowing current to flow from the supply voltage V_(DD) 1218 to the soft-impact output electrodes 1212, thereby delivering power to them, i.e., providing electrical power gain.

As FIG. 12A indicates, the mechanical resoswitch 1202 device performs all functions normally needed for AM reception, including filtering, amplification, and demodulation. It filters mechanically via its bandpass biquad voltage-to-velocity frequency response, which is conveniently thin and sharp enough to select a desired 52 Hz channel while suppressing out-of-channel interferers. Removal of interferers of course prevents them from generating intermodulation components through subsequent nonlinearity, which then allows the following stages to be quite nonlinear. More to the point, it allows use of a very nonlinear switching amplifier, such as is realized via the resonant soft-impact output electrodes 1212 depicted in FIG. 12A.

Resonant impacting also enables demodulation, the type of which, i.e., on off keying (OOK), frequency shift keying (FSK), or amplitude modulation (AM), depends upon the hardness of the soft-impact output electrodes 1212.

Q. Hard Contact Versus Soft Contact

FIGS. 12B and 12C respectively illustrate the differences between the hard contact of previous work realized using an output switch electrode firmly clamped to the substrate (in FIG. 12B); and the soft contact of this work (in FIG. 12C), realized by a cantilever structure that bends when experiencing an impact. In each case, the impact electrode sits x₀ away from the tip of the shuttle at rest.

The hard and soft contact cases differ in the slopes of their input-amplitude versus output voltage curves, where the former's is quite large, to the point of realizing a practically instantaneous on/off transition; and the latter's much smaller, allowing for a slower transition that enables AM demodulation.

The reason for the difference between the two lies in the contact force, which takes the form

$\begin{matrix} {F_{c} = \frac{m_{1}\left( {v_{1}^{\prime} - v_{1}} \right)}{t_{c}}} & (15) \end{matrix}$ where m₁ is the shuttle mass, t_(c) is the contact time, and v₁ and v₁′ are the pre- and post-impact velocities, respectively, of the shuttle. In the hard-contact scenario of FIG. 12B, the electrode remains stationary during impact and the shuttle recoils after impact at v′=−rv ₁  (16) where r (0<r<1) is a coefficient of restitution that accounts for the energy loss due to impact, governed mostly by properties of the contact material, e.g., hardness, roughness, etc.

On the other hand, when the contact electrode is a compliant cantilever, as in FIG. 12C, the impact does not reverse the direction of the shuttle's velocity, and v′=sv ₁  (17) where s (0<s<1) is determined by contact dynamics governed largely by the mechanical impedance of the cantilever, especially if its stiffness k₂ is much smaller than the contact stiffness due to material hardness. The output voltage derives from a resistive divider

$\begin{matrix} {v_{out} = {\frac{R_{L}}{R_{on} + R_{L}}V_{DD}}} & (18) \end{matrix}$ where R _(on) ≈R _(o) −φF _(c)  (19) where R_(o) is a low contact force initial resistance, and φ models the dependence of contact resistance R_(on) on contact force. Combination of Eq. (15) to Eq. (19) then yields

$\begin{matrix} {v_{out} \approx \left\{ \begin{matrix} {\frac{m_{1}\varphi\; V_{DD}}{t_{c}R_{L}}\left( {1 + r} \right)v_{1}} & \left( {{hard}\mspace{14mu}{contact}} \right) \\ {\frac{m_{1}\varphi\; V_{DD}}{t_{c}R_{L}}\left( {1 - s} \right)v_{1}} & \left( {{soft}\mspace{14mu}{contact}} \right) \end{matrix} \right.} & (20) \end{matrix}$

Since the pre-impact closing velocity v₁ increases with input amplitude, Eq. (20) confirms that the input-amplitude to output voltage transfer function has a much smaller slope for a soft contact than a hard contact, allowing the former to affect AM demodulation.

R. Soft-Contact Enabled Squegging Suppression

Another benefit of soft-contact electrodes lies in the suppression of squegging, in which impact-derived disturbances to the natural resonance induce fluctuations in resonator displacement amplitude and phase.

Refer now to FIG. 21A through FIG. 21C for more insight. These figures plot simulated displacement over time for several hard-contact and soft-contact scenarios. In each plot, x₁ and x₂ represent displacements of the resonator and the contact electrode, respectively, previously described in FIG. 12B and FIG. 12C.

In FIG. 21A, a small F_(drive) at frequency f₁ drives the shuttle into resonance. Before impact, x₁ is 90° phase-shifted from F_(drive). When x₁ exceeds x₀, the shuttle makes contact with the (hard) electrode. Each contact induces an abrupt change in the phase of x₁ that renders the resonator out of sync with F_(drive). This reduces drive efficiency, causing the amplitude of x₁ to decrease, resulting in missed shuttle impacts, as shown. No longer impacting, the phase-shift corrects, the resonator “catches up” to again lag 90° from the drive force, raising the drive efficiency and allowing the displacement amplitude to again increase.

The dynamics depend highly on energy loss mechanisms at impact, which are difficult to model and predict. The resonator often exhibits chaotic behavior, where the output voltage is quite unstable. Since there are still impacts, the output capacitive load still charges, but now much more slowly than if the shuttle impacted on every cycle. As a result, the receiver still works, just slower than ideal, i.e., with degraded bit rate.

For the case of a hard contact, restoring a high bit rate calls for more input energy to overcome the described dephasing energy losses, as shown in FIG. 21B, where a much larger input force amplitude compels the shuttle to displace in phase with the drive force, thereby raising the drive efficiency and allowing impact on each cycle. By raising the needed input energy for a high data rate, squegging essentially compromises the sensitivity of a receiver employing a hard-contact resoswitch.

In FIG. 21C, a soft-contact electrode, on the other hand, allows the shuttle velocity to slowly dissipate instead of directly bouncing back and hence reduces the change in phase on each contact, thereby suppressing squegging. Since removal of squegging reduces the input energy needed to impact on every cycle, use of a soft contact electrode also improves the sensitivity at maximum bit rate.

Refer now to FIG. 22, which is a graph that plots gain characteristics for hard and soft contacts. Here, the hard contact scenario indicates an abrupt transition with substantial F_(drive) noise. On the other hand, the soft contact is shown as having a linear gradual switching transition region, where AM modulation may pass without loss of information due to the linearity.

S. Spurious Inputs: Interferers

Refer now to FIG. 23, which illustrates 2300 the generation and control of interferers through a nonlinear amplifier. An input signal 2302 with a low amplitude signal of interest 2304 is amplified through a nonlinear amplifier 2306 to produce an output 2308. This output 2308 now contains a spur 2310 that masks the original input signal of interest 2312. With interferers present, nonlinearity generates spurious signals from those interferers that can mask the desired signal.

However, the MEMS resoswitch implementation effects the removal of all interferers via a channel-select filter removes the source of the spurs, allowing subsequent nonlinearity with little consequence. This results 2314 in an input signal 2316 passed within the passband 2318 of the resoswitch, which results in an output 2320 of an amplified 2322 input signal 2316 with no spurs present.

On the other hand, a conventional aperiodic MEMS switch's on/off switching slope is nearly infinite. Unfortunately, its threshold voltage is even larger than that of a transistor, with values ranging from 6V for NEMS logic switches to 85V for RF MEMS switches.

The resoswitch used here solves both problems, with not only an effectively infinite on/off slope similar to the aperiodic switch, but also an ability to switch with very low power inputs enabled by Q multiplication of its displacement at resonance. The impulsive contact force of resonance impacting operation also improves contact resistance and reliability, making possible measured cycle counts greater than 170 trillion, which is several orders higher than aperiodic counterparts. The constraint to resonant or periodic inputs is actually not a constraint at all for an RF front-end application, and is in fact a benefit when one considers the well-known pitfalls of nonlinear signal processing, especially for receivers.

Indeed, conventional receivers attempt to avoid nonlinearity as much as possible, since nonlinearity generates spurious signals from interfering signals that can mask the desired signal, as previously shown in FIG. 23. The power consumption of a receiver in fact derives in large part from a need to keep the front-end linear, where higher linearity requires more power. But raising power consumption is not the best way to combat nonlinearity. Rather, a much better approach is to eliminate interferers before they experience nonlinearity and generate spurs, as explained in above in FIG. 23. No interferers, no spurs. Herein lies the beauty of the resoswitch: Its frequency response essentially functions as a built-in channel-selector that filters out all interferers, thereby eliminating nonlinear spurs and enabling its own heavily nonlinear, zero-quiescent power, impact-switching amplifier!

T. Practical Receiver Operation

As previously shown in FIG. 2B, the MEMS resoswitch 220 acts as a receiver that takes as input a differential ac signal ±(1/2)V_(FSK) combined with a DC bias voltage V_(P) applied to resoswitch by comb transducers 236 on opposite sides. A DC voltage source V_(DD) is tied to the moving shuttle 232 as serves as the supply to be switched to the output electrodes 226 upon impact with the contact points 234.

Refer now to FIG. 24 is a measured time domain plot of the resoswitch output in response to a 20-kHz on-resonance input that induces impact switch, connecting V_(DD) to the output and allowing it to deliver power.

Also now referring to FIG. 2B, when the frequency of voltage source 222 V_(FSK) is within the frequency passband of the MEMES resoswitch 220, the moving shuttle 232 vibrates laterally with an amplitude approximately Q times larger than would ensue with an out-of-band input. If voltage source 222 V_(FSK) induces a shuttle displacement larger than the switch gap d₀, the shuttle periodically connects the output to V_(DD) and delivers power to output load R_(L) and C_(L). This FIG. 24 shows measured input and switch output waveforms for R_(L)=160 kΩ and C_(L)=100 pF. In the receiver schematic of FIG. 2B, a flip-flop following the RC circuit then latches the output to provide a more stable sequence of 1's and 0's to the next stage.

The minimum input power that drives the shuttle to displace d₀ governs the ultimate sensitivity of the receiver, which takes the form of Eq. (6) previously discussed. Clearly, the smaller the switch gap spacing and higher the Q, the better the sensitivity.

U. FSK Signal Demodulation

Refer now to FIG. 2B, as well as FIG. 25A through FIG. 25C.

FIG. 25A is a time domain graph 2500 of the resoswitch of FIG. 2B with a frequency shift keyed (FSK) input signal V_(FSK) 2502, this time containing an aperiodic control signal shown at 2504.

FIG. 25B is a time domain graph 2506 of V_(out) from the resoswitch of FIG. 2A that has received and demodulated the input signal V_(FSK) 2502 to produce V_(out), showing that the aperiodic control signal has been detected with 2508.

FIG. 25C is a time domain graph of the output of the resoswitch circuit of FIG. 2B that has recovered the modulating or control component of input signal V_(FSK) 2502 of FIG. 25A as V_(control) 2512 at the output of the flip-flop. Also shown on this graph is the input clock signal 2514 that gates the flip-flop of FIG. 2B.

FIG. 25A through FIG. 25C are similar to the previous set of measured plots of FIG. 8A through FIG. 8C, however, now a more general sequence of 1's and 0's has been used, demonstrating that this receiver can detect, filter, amplify, and demodulate not just the square-wave of a clock RF input, but any sequence of 1's and 0's, so any type of data, be it voice, video, email, etc.

FIG. 25A-FIG. 25C plot the signal waveforms at different points in the receive chain. As shown, the input at FIG. 25A comprises an FSK modulated random series of data bits “0” and “1”, where bit “0” denotes an off resonance frequency at 50 kHz and “1” denotes a resonance input at 20 kHz. This signal passes through a balun to generate differential inputs that combine with a dc bias V_(P) of 16V then proceed to resoswitch comb electrodes on opposite sides. A “1” input with sufficient amplitude drives the resoswitch to resonance impacting, which then drives the output to V_(DD)=1V. Input powers as low as −60 dBm were sufficient to incite impacting at the output node, which then delivered −11 dBm to the backend circuit. This equates to more than 49 dB of power gain, all generated via a mechanical switching mechanism.

On the other hand, an off-resonance “0” input barely moves the resoswitch shuttle. There is no impact, so the output sinks to ground via bleed resistor R_(L). As advertised, the receiver front-end consumes no power when receiving out-of-channel inputs.

The RC circuit ultimately governs the bit rate f_(b) of the present receiver, where proper operation ensues when

$\frac{1}{2\pi\; f_{0}} < {R_{L}C_{L}} < \frac{1}{2\pi\; f_{b}}$

When R_(L) and C_(L) take on values of 160 kΩ and 100 pF, respectively, FIG. 25B indicates that the output easily keeps up with a 1 kbit/s input bit rate. Note, however, how the output vacillates somewhat at the beginning of each “0” to “1” transition, perhaps indicating squegging-related instability even with the new resoswitch design. Methods to suppress squegging have already been demonstrated, so this instability should be removable via purely mechanical means, i.e., with no need for additional electronics.

In the meantime, the receiver of FIG. 2B simply suppresses output instability by latching to a flip-flop 240 that then presents the stable output shown in FIG. 25C In this scheme, the first valid “1” is used as a pilot to start the synchronizing clock needed for latching.

V. Full FSK Signal Demodulation

Since a true FSK receiver detects both 1's and 0's, the present receiver that explicitly detects only 1's is actually operating in an on/off key (OOK) fashion. Addition of a second resoswitch that specifically detects 0's, so that both 1's and 0's are detected and processed, is all that is needed to make a true FSK receiver.

Refer now again to FIG. 5, described previously, that realizes exactly this case, so realizes a mechanical circuit capable of receiving, filtering, amplifying, and demodulating a full FSK signal.

In this embodiment, a first resoswitch 502 would be used for detecting the input control signal at a first FSK frequency. A second resoswitch 504 would be used to detect a second FSK frequency. There are normally cases where the clock signal is actually extracted from signals already received by the two resoswitches. However, a third resoswitch could also be used to detect the clocking signal that can then be used to gate the flip-flop.

Such an embodiment would not only be free of a requirement for DC power when simply listening for the various frequencies, but would also require no DC current draw even when receiving and processing signals. It would comprise a realization that is truly zero quiescent power, since it never needs to draw DC power, whether fully awake and processing its or in standby. To keep this complexity with a sense of scale, the overall size of three such resoswitches could be on the order of 100 μm.

3. Conclusions

From the description herein, it will be appreciated that that the present disclosure encompasses multiple embodiments which include, but are not limited to, the following:

1. A zero-quiescent power trigger sensor and transceiver apparatus, comprising: a microelectromechanical resonant switch, having a mechanical shuttle to move in response to mechanical oscillation; wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured to receive an input stream, amplify it, and deliver power to a load; wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch only consumes power when a valid input signal is within the passband of the resonant element so that it actuates the microelectromechanical resonant switch with sufficient amplitude to cause switch impacting.

2. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said zero-quiescent power trigger sensor is configured to accept a smaller required input signal.

3. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said zero-quiescent power trigger sensor is configured for interrogating a large group of sensors by a centralized base station that need not be proximal to the transceivers.

4. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said input stream comprises an FSK-modulated into an off-resonance signal to represent a ‘0’ or an on-resonance signal to denote a ‘1’.

5. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein reception of a ‘1’ at the input electrode induces resonance vibration of the structure, in turn instigating impacting of the shuttle to the output electrode.

6. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said impacting then periodically transfers charge from a power source (e.g., VDD) to an output load capacitor CL, eventually charging it near said power source level corresponding to a ‘1’.

7. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein any ‘0’ input received afterwards stops resonant impacting, allowing CL to discharge to ground, which denotes a ‘0’ so that the input bit stream is faithfully reproduced at the output and captured by a shift register connected to logic that delivers an output ‘1’ when the registered bit stream matches the trigger code.

8. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch utilizes electret technology on the input device(s) capable of generating effective voltage differences higher than 400V to enhance input sensitivity.

9. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch uses displacement input parametric amplification to generate impacting oscillation at the output of the displacement amplifier.

10. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, further comprising a shift register circuit and decoder coupled to the output electrode receiving the impact of a shuttle in said microelectromechanical resonant switch and coupling a signal to said shift register.

11. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, further comprising a signal conditioning circuit at the signal input of said shift register.

12. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said signal conditioning circuit comprises a parallel resistor and capacitor.

13. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said shift registers receives a clock input, and outputs a plurality of bits to said decoder, which comprises an n×1 decoder, which is configured to output a bit in response to reception of a trigger coder.

14. A zero quiescent power receiver apparatus, comprising: a microelectromechanical resonant switch, having a resonant element that oscillates in response to an input signal; wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch detects the input signal, amplifies it, and delivers power to a load; wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch only consumes power when the input signal is within a passband of the resonant element so that the input signal actuates the resonant element with sufficient amplitude so as to cause impact with an output electrode; and wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch detects the input signal when the input signal is within the passband of the resonant element with an input sensitivity within the passband selected from a group of input sensitivities consisting of: ≤−58 dBm, ≤−60 dBm, ≤−68 dBm, and ≤−100 dBm.

15. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein no power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.

16. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said zero quiescent power trigger sensor is configured for interrogating a large group of sensors by a centralized base station that need not be proximal to the transceivers.

17. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said input signal comprises a frequency shift keyed (FSK) modulated stream whereby an off-resonance signal represents a ‘0’ and an on-resonance signal represents a ‘1’.

18. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein reception of a ‘1’ at an input electrode of the microelectromechanical resonant switch induces a resonance vibration of the resonant element, in turn instigating impacting of the resonant element to the output electrode.

19. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, whereby said impacting periodically transfers charge from a power source (e.g., VDD) to an output load capacitor CL, eventually charging it near said power source level corresponding to a ‘1’.

20. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein any ‘0’ input received afterwards no longer excites resonant impacting, thereby allowing CL to discharge to ground, which denotes a ‘0’ so that the input signal FSK modulated stream is faithfully reproduced at CL and captured by a shift register connected to logic that delivers an output ‘1’ when the registered bit stream matches a trigger code.

21. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch utilizes electret technology on the input device(s) capable of generating effective voltage differences higher than 400V to enhance input sensitivity.

22. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch uses a displacement input parametric amplifier to generate impacting oscillation at an output of the displacement input parametric amplifier.

23. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, further comprising a shift register circuit coupled to the output electrode receiving the impact of the resonant element in said microelectromechanical resonant switch and coupling an output of the shift register to a decoder.

24. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, further comprising a signal conditioning circuit at the signal input of said shift register.

25. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said signal conditioning circuit comprises a resistor and capacitor in paralleled to ground.

26. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said shift register receives a clock input, and outputs a plurality of bits to said decoder, which comprises an n×1 decoder, which is configured to output a bit in response to reception of a trigger coder.

27. A zero quiescent power receiver, comprising: a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonant switch (resoswitch) comprising an oscillating shuttle; wherein a radio frequency (RF) input signal drives the oscillation of the shuttle; wherein an oscillation of the shuttle causes an impact of the shuttle with one or more output electrodes; wherein, with each impact, a load capacitor charge state is changed by contact between the shuttle and output electrode; wherein an output signal is generated based on the load capacitor charge state; and wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch detects the RF input signal within the passband with an input sensitivity selected from a group of input sensitivities consisting of: <−60 dBm, <−68 dBm, and <−100 dBm.

28. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein no power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.

29. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein each impact is followed by a missed impact comprising one or more oscillations of shuttle movement not making impact.

30. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein a duration of the missed impact time is periodic and repeatable.

31. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resoswitch comprises a comb structure for driving the shuttle in oscillation.

32. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the load capacitor connects to a bleed resistor or current source.

33. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the RF input signal is in a radio-frequency range from the low kHz range up through the high MHz range.

34. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the RF input signal is modulated with a desired modulation type.

35. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein each impact has a coefficient of restitution selected from a group of coefficients consisting of: less than 1.0, less than 0.90, less than 0.80, less than 0.70, less than 0.60, greater than 0.60, greater than 0.70, greater than 0.80, greater than 0.90, and greater than 0.95.

36. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resoswitch is configured with at least one input section having a resonant frequency equal to the radio-frequency (RF) input signal.

37. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resoswitch is configured to block receipt of other radio-frequency components that are not at the resonant frequency of the oscillating shuttle.

38. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured for accumulating phase shift at each shuttle-to-output electrode impact when driven by said radio-frequency (RF) input signal, wherein generating a squegged clock output from said clock generator apparatus.

39. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the clock output signal occurs at a stable frequency output at a fraction of the radio-frequency (RF) input signal frequency, whereby said clock output signal can serve as a local on-board clock generator in many different systems.

40. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) operates without a positive feed-back sustaining amplifier to sustain shuttle oscillation.

41. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the clock output signal is generated by an inverter that inverts the load capacitor charge state to a square wave output.

42. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein said oscillating shuttle motion is powered solely via the radio frequency (RF) input signal.

43. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as an ultra low-power oscillator for a low power clocking application.

44. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as a low-power oscillator in harsh environments where the resoswitch is subject to one or more of the following conditions: radioactivity, temperature, or combinations thereof.

45. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as a clock generator to drive frequency hopping radio frequency (RF) communication systems.

46. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as a real-time clock (RTC) for use in an autonomous sensor network for synchronizing sleep and wake cycles.

47. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured for inclusion within a mobile device, wearable device, or various consumer products and devices.

48. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the oscillating shuttle is driven by a frequency shift keying (FSK) modulated wave or a continuous wave (CW).

49. The apparatus of any preceding embodiment, wherein the output electrodes are elastically deformable, or are mounted to an elastically deformable mount.

50. A method of output signal generation, comprising: receiving a radio frequency (RF) input signal; providing a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonant switch (resoswitch) comprising an oscillating shuttle; driving the oscillating shuttle with the radio frequency (RF) input signal; impacting the shuttle with one or more output electrodes after an oscillation of the shuttle causes an impact; wherein said impacting results from the RF input signal having an input sensitivity within the shuttle passband selected from a group of input sensitivities consisting of: <−60 dBm, <−68 dBm, and <−100 dBm; changing a load capacitor charge state at each impact contact between the shuttle and output electrode; and generating an output signal based on the load capacitor charge state.

51. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein no power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.

52. The method of any preceding embodiment, comprising: following each impact with a missed impact comprising one or more oscillations of shuttle movement not making impact.

53. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein a duration of the missed impact time is periodic and repeatable.

54. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resoswitch comprises a comb structure for driving the shuttle in oscillation.

55. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the load capacitor connects to a bleed resistor or current source.

56. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the RF input signal is in a radio-frequency range from the low kHz range up through the high MHz range.

57. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the RF input signal is modulated with a desired modulation type.

58. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the clock output signal has an output clock frequency at least 10 times lower in frequency than the RF input signal frequency.

59. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resoswitch is configured with at least one input section having a resonant frequency equal to the radio-frequency (RF) input signal.

60. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resoswitch is configured to block receipt of other radio-frequency components that are not at the resonant frequency of the oscillating shuttle.

61. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured for accumulating phase shift at each shuttle-to-output electrode impact when driven by said radio-frequency (RF) input signal, thereby generating a squegged output from the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch).

62. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the output signal occurs at a stable frequency output at a fraction of the radio-frequency (RF) input signal frequency, whereby said clock output signal can serve as a local on-board clock generator in many different systems.

63. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) operates without a positive feed-back amplifier to sustain shuttle oscillation.

64. The method of any preceding embodiment, comprising:

generating the output signal by inverting the load capacitor charge state to a square wave output.

65. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein said oscillating shuttle oscillation is powered solely via the radio frequency (RF) input signal.

66. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as an ultra low-power oscillator for a low power clocking application.

67. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as a low-power oscillator in harsh environments where the resoswitch is subject to one or more of the following conditions: radioactivity, temperature, or combinations thereof.

68. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured as a clock generator to drive frequency hopping radio frequency (RF) communication systems when the RF input signal represents a clock.

69. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured with an appropriate RF input signal as a real-time clock (RTC) for use in an autonomous sensor network for synchronizing sleep and wake cycles.

70. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the MEMS resonant switch (resoswitch) is configured for inclusion within a mobile device, wearable device, or various consumer products and devices.

71. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the oscillating shuttle is driven by a frequency shift keying (FSK) modulated wave.

72. The method of any preceding embodiment, wherein the oscillating shuttle is excited by a continuous wave (CW).

73. A resonant receiver, comprising: a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonant switch (resoswitch) comprising an oscillating shuttle; wherein a radio frequency (RF) input signal drives the oscillation of the shuttle; wherein an oscillation of the shuttle causes an impact of the shuttle with one or more output electrodes; wherein, with each impact, a load capacitor charge state is changed by contact between the shuttle and output electrode; and wherein a demodulated output is generated based on the load capacitor charge state; and wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch detects the input signal when the input signal is within the passband of the shuttle with an input sensitivity within the passband selected from a group of input sensitivities consisting of: <−60 dBm, <−68 dBm, and <−100 dBm.

74. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, wherein the input signal is continuous wave (CW).

75. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, wherein the input signal is frequency shift keyed (FSK).

76. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, wherein more than one resoswitch operate to detect a corresponding plurality of input frequencies to effect FSK reception.

77. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, wherein no power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.

78. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, wherein at least two resoswitches are used for FSK reception.

79. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, comprising: a first resoswitch configured to receive a control signal contained within the input signal; a second resoswitch configured to detect a clock signal within the input signal; and a flip-flop configured to input the demodulated capacitor of the first resoswitch; wherein the clock signal is supplied to the flip-flop so as to detect the control signal.

80. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, comprising: a first resoswitch configured to receive a control signal contained within the input signal; a second resoswitch configured to detect a clock signal within the input signal; and a flip-flop configured to input the demodulated capacitor of the first resoswitch; wherein the clock signal is supplied to the flip-flop so as to detect the control signal.

81. A resonant receiver, comprising: a first resoswitch configured to receive a control signal contained within the input signal; a second resoswitch configured to detect a clock signal within the input signal; and additional circuitry configured to input the demodulated capacitor of the first resoswitch; wherein the clock signal is supplied to the additional circuitry so as to detect the control signal.

82. A resonant receiver, comprising: a first microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonant switch (resoswitch); a second microelectromechanical system (MEMS) resonant switch (resoswitch); wherein a first radio frequency (RF) input signal drives the oscillation of the first resoswitch; wherein a second radio frequency (RF) input signal drives the oscillation of the second resoswitch; wherein an oscillation of the first resoswitch causes an impact with one or more output electrodes that charges up a load capacitor, the load capacitor having a charge state; wherein an oscillation of the second resoswitch causes an impact with one or more output electrodes that discharges the load capacitor; wherein, with each impact, the load capacitor charge state is changed by contact between the resoswitch and output electrode; and wherein a demodulated output is generated based on the load capacitor charge state.

83. The receiver of any preceding embodiment, wherein a bleed resistor is not used to discharge the load capacitor.

Embodiments of the present technology may be described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations of methods and systems according to embodiments of the technology, and/or procedures, algorithms, steps, operations, formulae, or other computational depictions, which may also be implemented as computer program products. In this regard, each block or step of a flowchart, and combinations of blocks (and/or steps) in a flowchart, as well as any procedure, algorithm, step, operation, formula, or computational depiction can be implemented by various means, such as hardware, firmware, and/or software including one or more computer program instructions embodied in computer-readable program code. As will be appreciated, any such computer program instructions may be executed by one or more computer processors, including without limitation a general purpose computer or special purpose computer, or other programmable processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the computer program instructions which execute on the computer processor(s) or other programmable processing apparatus create means for implementing the function(s) specified.

Accordingly, blocks of the flowcharts, and procedures, algorithms, steps, operations, formulae, or computational depictions described herein support combinations of means for performing the specified function(s), combinations of steps for performing the specified function(s), and computer program instructions, such as embodied in computer-readable program code logic means, for performing the specified function(s). It will also be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations, as well as any procedures, algorithms, steps, operations, formulae, or computational depictions and combinations thereof described herein, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based computer systems which perform the specified function(s) or step(s), or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer-readable program code.

Furthermore, these computer program instructions, such as embodied in computer-readable program code, may also be stored in one or more computer-readable memory or memory devices that can direct a computer processor or other programmable processing apparatus to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer-readable memory or memory devices produce an article of manufacture including instruction means which implement the function specified in the block(s) of the flowchart(s). The computer program instructions may also be executed by a computer processor or other programmable processing apparatus to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer processor or other programmable processing apparatus to produce a computer-implemented process such that the instructions which execute on the computer processor or other programmable processing apparatus provide steps for implementing the functions specified in the block(s) of the flowchart(s), procedure (s) algorithm(s), step(s), operation(s), formula(e), or computational depiction(s).

It will further be appreciated that the terms “programming” or “program executable” as used herein refer to one or more instructions that can be executed by one or more computer processors to perform one or more functions as described herein. The instructions can be embodied in software, in firmware, or in a combination of software and firmware. The instructions can be stored local to the device in non-transitory media, or can be stored remotely such as on a server, or all or a portion of the instructions can be stored locally and remotely. Instructions stored remotely can be downloaded (pushed) to the device by user initiation, or automatically based on one or more factors.

It will further be appreciated that as used herein, that the terms processor, hardware processor, computer processor, central processing unit (CPU), and computer are used synonymously to denote a device capable of executing the instructions and communicating with input/output interfaces and/or peripheral devices, and that the terms processor, hardware processor, computer processor, CPU, and computer are intended to encompass single or multiple devices, single core and multicore devices, and variations thereof.

Although the description herein contains many details, these should not be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosure but as merely providing illustrations of some of the presently preferred embodiments. Therefore, it will be appreciated that the scope of the disclosure fully encompasses other embodiments which may become obvious to those skilled in the art.

All cited references are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In particular, the following reference is additionally hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety: Y. Lin, W.-C. Li, G. Ilya, S.-S. Li, Y.-W. Lin, Z. Ren, B. Kim and C. T.-C. Nguyen, “Digitally-specified micromechanical displacement amplifiers,” in Technical Digest, the 15th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (Transducers '09), Denver, Colo., June 2009, pp. 781-784.

In the claims, reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” All structural, chemical, and functional equivalents to the elements of the disclosed embodiments that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the present claims. Furthermore, no element, component, or method step in the present disclosure is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether the element, component, or method step is explicitly recited in the claims. No claim element herein is to be construed as a “means plus function” element unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for”. No claim element herein is to be construed as a “step plus function” element unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “step for”. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A zero quiescent power receiver apparatus, comprising: a microelectromechanical resonant switch, having a resonant element that oscillates in response to an input signal; wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch detects the input signal, amplifies it, and delivers power to a load; wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch only consumes power when the input signal is within a passband of the resonant element so that the input signal actuates the resonant element with sufficient amplitude so as to cause impact with an output electrode; and wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch detects the input signal when the input signal is within the passband of the resonant element with an input sensitivity within the passband selected from a group of input sensitivities consisting of: ≤−58 dBm, ≤−60 dBm, ≤−68 dBm, and ≤−100 dBm.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein no DC power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said zero quiescent power trigger sensor is configured for interrogating a large group of sensors by a centralized base station that need not be proximal to transceivers.
 4. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said input signal comprises a frequency shift keyed (FSK) modulated stream and wherein an off-resonance signal represents an off-resonance state and an on-resonance signal represents an on-resonance state.
 5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein reception of an on-resonance state at an input electrode of the microelectromechanical resonant switch induces a resonance vibration of the resonant element, in turn instigating impacting of the resonant element to the output electrode.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5, whereby said impacting periodically transfers charge from a power source (e.g., V_(DD)) to an output load capacitor C_(L), eventually charging it near said power source level corresponding to an on-resonance state.
 7. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein any off-resonance state received after receiving an on-resonance state no longer excites resonant impacting, thereby allowing C_(L) to discharge to ground, which denotes an off-resonance state so that the input signal FSK modulated stream is faithfully reproduced at C_(L) and captured by a shift register connected to logic that outputs an on-resonance state when a registered bit stream matches a trigger code.
 8. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch utilizes electret technology on input device(s) capable of generating effective voltage differences higher than 400V to enhance input sensitivity.
 9. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said microelectromechanical resonant switch uses a displacement input parametric amplifier to generate impacting oscillation at an output of the displacement input parametric amplifier.
 10. The apparatus of claim 2, further comprising a shift register circuit coupled to the output electrode receiving the impact of the resonant element in said microelectromechanical resonant switch and coupling an output of the shift register circuit to a decoder.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10, further comprising a signal conditioning circuit coupled to a signal input of said shift register circuit.
 12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein said signal conditioning circuit comprises a resistor and capacitor in paralleled to ground.
 13. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein said shift register receives a clock input, and outputs a plurality of bits to said decoder, which comprises an n×1 decoder, which is configured to output a bit in response to reception of a trigger coder.
 14. The apparatus of claim 1: wherein the resonant element comprises an oscillating shuttle; wherein the input signal is a radio frequency (RF) input signal that drives oscillation of the shuttle; wherein an oscillation of the shuttle causes an impact of the shuttle with the output electrode; wherein, with each impact, a load capacitor charge state is changed by contact between the shuttle and the output electrode; and wherein an output signal is generated based on the load capacitor charge state.
 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein no DC power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.
 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein each impact is followed by a missed impact comprising one or more oscillations of shuttle movement not making impact.
 17. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein a duration of the missed impact time is periodic and repeatable.
 18. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the oscillating shuttle comprises a comb structure for driving the shuttle in oscillation.
 19. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein a load capacitor connects to a bleed resistor or current source.
 20. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the RF input signal is in a radio-frequency range from the low kHz range up through the high MHz range.
 21. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the RF input signal is modulated with a desired modulation type.
 22. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein each impact has a coefficient of restitution selected from a group of coefficients consisting of: less than 1.0, less than 0.90, less than 0.80, less than 0.70, less than 0.60, greater than 0.60, greater than 0.70, greater than 0.80, greater than 0.90, and greater than 0.95.
 23. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured with at least one input section having a resonant frequency equal to the radio-frequency (RF) input signal.
 24. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured to block receipt of other radio-frequency components that are not at the resonant frequency of the oscillating shuttle.
 25. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured for accumulating phase shift at each shuttle-to-output electrode impact when driven by said radio-frequency (RF) input signal, wherein generating a squegged clock output from a clock generator apparatus.
 26. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the output signal occurs at a stable frequency output at a fraction of the radio-frequency (RF) input signal frequency, whereby said output signal can serve as a local on-board clock generator in many different systems.
 27. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch operates without a positive feed-back sustaining amplifier to sustain the shuttle oscillation.
 28. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the output signal is generated by an inverter that inverts the load capacitor charge state to a square wave output.
 29. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein said oscillating shuttle is powered solely via the radio frequency (RF) input signal.
 30. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as an ultra low-power oscillator for a low power clocking application.
 31. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as a low-power oscillator in harsh environments where the microelectromechanical resonant switch is subject to one or more of the following conditions: radioactivity, temperature, or combinations thereof.
 32. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as a clock generator to drive frequency hopping radio frequency (RF) communication systems.
 33. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as a real-time clock (RTC) for use in an autonomous sensor network for synchronizing sleep and wake cycles.
 34. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured for inclusion within a mobile device, wearable device, or various consumer products and devices.
 35. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the oscillating shuttle is driven by a frequency shift keying (FSK) modulated wave or a continuous wave (CW).
 36. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the output electrode is elastically deformable, or is mounted to an elastically deformable mount.
 37. The apparatus of claim 14: wherein the output signal generated based on the load capacitor charge state is a demodulated output signal.
 38. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the input signal is continuous wave (CW).
 39. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the input signal is frequency shift keyed (FSK).
 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein more than one said microelectromechanical resonant switches operate to detect a corresponding plurality of input frequencies to effect FSK reception.
 41. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein no power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.
 42. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein at least two said microelectromechanical resonant switches are used for FSK reception.
 43. The apparatus of claim 37, comprising: a first said microelectromechanical resonant switch configured to receive a control signal contained within the input signal; a second said microelectromechanical resonant switch configured to detect a clock signal within the input signal; and a flip-flop configured to input the demodulated capacitor of the first said microelectromechanical resonant switch; wherein the clock signal is supplied to the flip-flop so as to detect the control signal.
 44. A method of output signal generation, comprising: receiving a radio frequency (RF) input signal; providing the microelectromechanical resonant switch of claim 14; driving the oscillating shuttle with the radio frequency (RF) input signal; impacting the shuttle with one or more output electrodes after an oscillation of the shuttle causes an impact; wherein said impacting results from the RF input signal having an input sensitivity within the shuttle passband selected from a group of input sensitivities consisting of: <−60 dBm, <−68 dBm, and <−100 dBm; changing the load capacitor charge state at each impact contact between the shuttle and the output electrode; and generating an output signal based on the load capacitor charge state.
 45. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein no DC power is needed to listen in standby for the input signal.
 46. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, further comprising: following each impact with a missed impact comprising one or more oscillations of shuttle movement not making impact.
 47. The method of output signal generation of claim 46, wherein a duration of the missed impact time is periodic and repeatable.
 48. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the oscillating shuttle comprises a comb structure for driving the shuttle in oscillation.
 49. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the load capacitor connects to a bleed resistor or current source.
 50. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the RF input signal is in a radio-frequency range from the low kHz range up through the high MHz range.
 51. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the RF input signal is modulated with a desired modulation type.
 52. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the output signal has an output frequency at least 10 times lower in frequency than the RF input signal frequency.
 53. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured with at least one input section having a resonant frequency equal to the radio-frequency (RF) input signal.
 54. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured to block receipt of other radio-frequency components that are not at the resonant frequency of the oscillating shuttle.
 55. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured for accumulating phase shift at each shuttle-to-output electrode impact when driven by said radio-frequency (RF) input signal, thereby generating a squegged output from the microelectromechanical resonant switch.
 56. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the output signal occurs at a stable frequency output at a fraction of the radio-frequency (RF) input signal frequency, whereby said output signal can serve as a local on-board clock generator in many different systems.
 57. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch operates without a positive feed-back amplifier to sustain shuttle oscillation.
 58. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, further comprising: generating the output signal by inverting the load capacitor charge state to a square wave output.
 59. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein said oscillating shuttle oscillation is powered solely via the radio frequency (RF) input signal.
 60. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as an ultra low-power oscillator for a low power clocking application.
 61. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as a low-power oscillator in harsh environments where the microelectromechanical resonant switch is subject to one or more of the following conditions: radioactivity, temperature, or combinations thereof.
 62. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured as a clock generator to drive frequency hopping radio frequency (RF) communication systems when the RF input signal represents a clock.
 63. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured with an appropriate RF input signal as a real-time clock (RTC) for use in an autonomous sensor network for synchronizing sleep and wake cycles.
 64. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the microelectromechanical resonant switch is configured for inclusion within a mobile device, wearable device, or various consumer products and devices.
 65. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the oscillating shuttle is driven by a frequency shift keying (FSK) modulated wave.
 66. The method of output signal generation of claim 44, wherein the oscillating shuttle is excited by a continuous wave (CW). 